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The  Land  of  Israel 


A  Text  Book  on  the  Physical 
and  Historical  Geography  of 
the  Holy  Land  embodying  the 
Results  of  Recent  Research 


BY 


Robert  Laird  Stewart,  D.  D. 

Professor  of  Pastoral  Theology  and  Biblical  Archaeology  in  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  of  Lincoln  University,  Pa. 


WITH  EIGHTEEN  MAPS  AND  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NEW  YORK       CHICAGO       TORONTO 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

Publishers  of  Evangelical  Literature 


Copyright,  1899 

by 
FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 


LOAN  STACK 


SEVENTH  EDITION 


DS  101 


TO 
THE  REV.  F.  H.  ROBARTS  AND  WIFE 

OF 

GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND 
ERST-WHILE  COMPANIONS  AND  FELLOW-TRAVELLERS 

IN  THE 
LANDS  OF  THE  EAST 


260 


List  of  Illustrations 

(  Ascent  of  Pass  of  Nahr  el  Kelb,  )  Facing  tag*    44 

{    From  North,  with  one  of  the  Tablets    } 

2.  Capture  of  Lachish  by  Sennacherib      ....**         '*       95 

3.  Tell  es  Safi  (Gath  ?) Page  102 

4.  *Tell  Zakariya Facing  page  103 

5.  Excavation  at  Tell  es  Safi "  "     105 

6.  General  view  of  Nazareth "  "     116 

7.  Nablus  and  Vale  of  Shechem "  "146 

8.  Curb  of  Jacob's  Well Page  149 

9.  Ruined  Crypt,  and  section  of  Jacob's  Well    ...  "     151 

10.  *Wady  Suweinet Facing  page  161 

11.  General  view  of  Jerusalem  (Church  of  St.  Anne 

in  foreground) "  "     174 

12.  Damascus  Gate "  "176 

13.  The  southeast  angle  of  Haram  Wall    ....*'  "     189 

14.  Robinson's  Arch *'  "     192 

15.  The  probable  site  of  Calvary "  "200 

16.  Bethany '*  "     203 

17.  The  Bridge  over  the  Kedron "  "205 

18.  The  Wilderness  of  Judea "  "225 

19.  Bethlehem  of  Judah "  "228 

20.  ^Abraham's  Well,  Beersheba Page  239 

21.  Kadesh  Barnea "     244 

22.  *The  new  Jordan  Bridge  at  mouth  of  Wady  Shaib  Facing  page  283 

*Reproduced,  by  permission,  from  the  publications  of  the  Palestine  Exploring  Fund. 


List  of  Maps 


Physical  Map  of  the  Holy  Land  in  Colors 
Boundaries  of  the  Tribes  of  Israel .     .     .     . 
Divisions  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ 


.  Frontispiece 
Facingpage  36 
.  "  "  41 


8. 

9- 
10. 
n. 

12. 
13. 


SECTIONAL  MAPS 


The  Maritime  Plain  north  of  Mt.  Carmel      .    Facingpage    6$ 

The  Maritime  Plain  south  of  Mt.  Carmel      .    .    •'  •*      79 

TheShephelah •'  "      97 

The  Mountains  of  Galilee ••  M    106 

The  Plain  of  Esdraelon '•  "120 

The  Mountains  of  Ephraim **  "    134 

The  Mountains  of  Benjamin "  '•     158 

Plan  of  Ancient  Jerusalem **  M    170 

Plan  of  Modern  Jerusalem **  "    173 

The  Mountains  of  Judah "  "    224 

The  Negeb  or  South  Country      ......     M  "237 

The  Valley  of  the  Jordan "  "254 

The  Sea  of  Galilee Page  263 

The  Land  of  Bashan Facingpage  303 

Gilead  and  Moab  .                            ,...."  "    3*7 


Preface 

TO   SECOND    EDITION. 

The  demand  for  a  new  edition  of  this  work  has  given 
opportunity  to  make  some  typographical  corrections, 
and  to  add  a  brief  summary  of  the  results  of  the  exca- 
vations, under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Bliss,  during  the 
summer  of  1899.  A  photographic  view  of  an  interesting 
section  of  the  excavations  at  Tell  es  Safi,  reproduced  by 
permission  from  the  October  Quarterly  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,  has  been  added  to  the  list  of  illus- 
trations. The  folded  boundary  maps,  drawn  by  Kiepert, 
have  been  replaced  by  two  carefully  prepared  maps  in 
more  convenient  form,  which  harmonize  at  all  points 
with  the  descriptions  of  the  text. 

An  additional  map  in  colors  gives  the  physical  features 
of  the  Land  as  a  whole:  the  relative  heights  and  depres- 
sions being  indicated  by  different  shades  of  color. 

R.  L.  S. 

Lincoln  University,  Pa.t 
September  i,  1900. 


Preface 

IN  the  light  of  recent  research  the  Geography  of  the  Holy 
Land  has  become  a  study  of  absorbing  interest.  It  has  fur- 
nished a  clue  to  the  explanation  of  many  historical  difficulties ; 
filled  old  words  with  new  meanings ;  revealed  correspondence 
with  the  Bible  hitherto  unseen ;  corroborated  minute  circum- 
stances of  position,  time  and  distance,  incidentally  given  by  the 
sacred  writers ;  and,  in  a  word,  has  restored  the  real  historic 
setting  of  a  series  of  real  historic  narratives. 

The  work  of  exploration  on  a  strictly  scientific  basis,  com- 
menced by  Dr.  Robinson  some  sixty  years  ago,  has  been  car- 
ried on  to  the  present  time  by  a  worthy  corps  of  successors, 
who  amid  many  discomforts  and  perils  have  given  years  of 
patient  study  and  investigation  to  the  identification  of  places, 
the  translation  of  ancient  records,  the  excavation  of  buried 
cities  and  the  survey  of  the  land  as  a  whole.  To  these  devoted 
men — the  pioneers  of  Palestine  Geography — and  to  the  Socie- 
ties which  supported  them  in  their  work,  the  Christian  world  is 
deeply  indebted.  While  this  task  has  been  necessarily  limited 
to  a  small  number  of  specialists,  it  is  given  to  a  larger  number 
to  glean  after  them  in  the  same  field  of  labor,  and  utilize  the 
results.  Herein  is  the  saying  true,  "  Other  men  have  labored, 
and  we  are  entered  into  their  labors." 

A  desideratum,  in  view  of  the  growing  importance  of  this 
study,  is  a  Text-Book  or  Manual,  abreast  of  the  latest  explora- 
tions, in  which  the  student  may  find  a  summary  of  the  charac- 
teristic features  and  historical  associations  of  every  place  of  im- 
portance mentioned  in  the  Scripture  whose  site  has  been  defi- 
nitely located. 

The  present  volume,  while  doubtless  imperfect  in  many 
respects,  is  a  contribution  toward  this  end.  It  is  the  develop- 


Preface 

ment  of  the  outlines  of  a  course  of  instruction  which  has  been 
tested  during  a  period  of  eight  years  by  several  successive 
classes  of  theological  students ;  and  is  now  given  to  the  public 
in  the  hope  that  it  may  supply  a  want  which  has  been  felt  in 
other  institutions  of  learning ;  and  that  it  may  be  helpful  also 
as  a  Handbook  to  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  Sabbath-school 
teachers  and  students  of  the  Bible  in  general.  If  its  author 
shall  receive  but  a  tithe  of  the  favor  and  encouragement  in  this 
wider  field,  which  he  has  received  from  his  own  pupils,  he  will 
be  amply  repaid  for  the  time  and  labor  he  has  devoted  to  its 
preparation. 

The  chief  value  of  a  work  of  this  character  must  of  necessity 
depend  upon  the  careful  selection  and  orderly  presentation  of 
well  authenticated  facts,  gathered  from  sources  not  readily  ac- 
cessible to  the  ordinary  student.  These  are  contained  in  costly 
memoirs  of  exploration  parties,  monographs  on  places  or  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  narratives  of  travel,  quarterlies  and  other 
official  publications  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund :  and  in 
such  standard  works  as  Robinson's  Physical  Geography  and 
Researches,  Ritter's  Comparative  Geography  of  Palestine, 
Stanley's  Sinai  and  Palestine,  Thomson's  Land  and  the  Book, 
Tristram's  Topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  Historical 
Geographies  of  Drs.  Henderson  and  Smith. 

While  the  author  has  gathered,  and  adapted  to  his  purpose, 
the  latest  and  most  interesting  information  attainable  from  these 
and  other  authoritative  sources  within  his  reach,  he  has  also 
availed  himself  of  the  impressions  which  can  only  come  from 
personal  observation.  A  carefully-planned  journey  from  the 
borders  of  the  South  country  to  the  heart  of  the  Lebanon  gave 
opportunity  for  studying  the  Geography  of  the  Land  day  by 
day  on  the  spot.  In  utilizing  these  impressions  the  writer  has 
sought  to  impart  something  of  the  life  and  coloring  imprinted 
on  his  own  mind  and  memory  through  the  "seeing  eye." 
Quotations  from  recognized  authorities  have  been  freely  intro- 
duced into  the  body  of  the  work  to  give  additional  value  to 


Preface 

descriptions  or  to  throw  light  upon  the  topography  or  antiquity 
of  disputed  sites. 

In  the  footnotes  credit  has  been  given  for  all  citations,  and, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  sources  of  direct  information  have  been 
indicated. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  book  a  general  description  of  the  Land 
is  given,  including  its  position  among  the  nations,  its  bounda- 
ries and  prominent  physical  features,  its  present  condition  and 
the  salient  points  in  its  history. 

In  the  second  part  the  special  features  and  noteworthy  places 
are  grouped  together  in  separate  sections  for  study  at  close 
range.  These  sectional  divisions  correspond  to  the  natural 
divisions  of  the  country ;  and,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  have 
familiar  Old  Testament  names  descriptive  of  their  physical  as- 
pects and  relations. 

An  obvious  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  the  opportunity 
it  affords  for  studying  the  characteristic  features,  and  historical 
associations  of  each  Biblical  site  in  connection  with  its  natural 
environment.  In  the  historical  records  of  the  country  the 
several  incidents  which  make  up  the  story  of  its  sacred  locali- 
ties are  often  widely  scattered,  but  in  a  Handbook  of  Sacred 
Geography  they  should  be  brought  together. 

As  Dean  Stanley  puts  it:  "A  work  of  this  kind  in  which 
the  local  description  is  severed  from  the  history  must  neces- 
sarily bear  an  incoherent  and  fragmentary  aspect.  It  is  the 
framework  without  the  picture — the  skeleton  without  the  flesh 
— the  stage  without  the  drama.  The  materials  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  East  are  worthily  turned  to  their  highest  and  most  fitting 
use  only  when  employed  for  a  complete  representation  of  the 
Sacred  History  as  drawn  out  in  its  full  proportions  from  the 
condensed  and  scattered  records  of  the  Scriptures." 

There  are  some  excellent  works  on  the  Geography  of  Pales- 
tine which  follow  the  historical  order  of  the  Biblical  records. 
These  have  their  place  and  value  as  adjuncts  to  the  study  of 
the  Bible,  but  they  are  objectionable  as  text-books  because  this 


Preface 

method  of  arrangement  imposes  upon  the  student  the  task  of 
searching  through  widely  separated  epochs  for  the  materials, 
which  make  up  the  story,  of  each  sacred  locality. 

The  necessity  for  the  frequent  repetition  of  places — as  in  the 
case  of  Shechem,  which  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  every 
prominent  period  of  Hebrew  history  from  Abraham  to  Christ — 
precludes  a  full  or  satisfactory  description  at  any  point. 

A  more  serious  difficulty,  however,  is  the  perplexity  which 
arises  from  the  study  in  turn  of  a  Palestine  of  the  Patriarchs ; 
of  the  Conquest;  of  the  Judges;  of  the  Kings;  and  of  the 
New  Testament  period.  These  or  similar  divisions  may  prop- 
erly represent  important  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Holy 
Land,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  making  them 
serve  as  divisions  of  its  geography.  On  the  contrary  their  use 
in  this  connection  is  bewildering  to  the  student,  if  not  positively 
misleading. 

The  land  given  to  Israel  by  Divine  allotment,  as  a  possession 
among  the  nations,  was  not  a  domain  of  uncertain  area,  whose 
metes  and  bounds  were  determined  by  political  changes  or  rev- 
olutions, but  a  distinct  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  with 
well  defined  boundaries  and  unique  physical  features.  Within 
these  limits  we  are  concerned  with  everything  which  belongs  to 
its  configuration,  topography,  history,  antiquity  and  associations. 

To  be  available  for  ready  reference  a  work  of  this  character 
must  give  an  account  of  every  Biblical  site,  which  has  been 
more  or  less  satisfactorily  identified.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  the  student  should  be  required  to  master  this  formi- 
dable list  of  places  in  wearisome  detail.  They  can  be  studied 
to  best  advantage  as  the  Astronomer  studies  the  stars  in  a 
given  section  of  the  heavens;  first  by  resolving  them  into 
groups,  and  second  by  concentrating  attention  upon  the  most 
conspicuous  representatives  of  these  groups. 

A  synopsis  of  each  chapter  will  be  found  in  the  Table  of 
Contents.  This  has  been  made  as  complete  as  possible  to  aid 
the  student  in  review. 


Preface 

A  series  of  sectional  maps — thirteen  in  number — illustrate 
the  topographical  feature  of  each  subdivision  of  the  country. 
These  have  been  prepared  with  great  care  under  the  author's 
personal  supervision,  and  for  the  most  part  from  reductions  of 
the  English  Survey  Maps.  They  indicate  the  exact  localities 
and  the  special  features  described  in  the  text.  Unimportant 
and  unidentified  localities  have  been  left  out. 

Railroads  projected,  or  in  operation,  new  carriage  roads,  and 
the  points  recently  selected  for  excavation  in  the  Shephelah 
have  been  indicated. 

I  desire  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  Mr.  R.  M.  Cam- 
den,  Jr.,  of  Philadelphia,  for  careful  and  accurate  detail  work 
on  the  series  of  maps ;  to  Professor  Theodore  F.  Wright,  of 
Cambridge,  Honorary  Secretary  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  for  the  United  States,  for  privileges  accorded  in  connec- 
tion with  the  use  and  reproduction  of  maps  and  illustrations 
published  by  the  Fund  ;  to  my  associates  Drs.  I.  N.  Rendall 
and  J.  Aspinwall  Hodge  for  valuable  help  and  suggestions,  and 
especially  to  Professor  George  B.  Carr,  D.  D.,  for  assistance  in 
revision  of  the  work  in  manuscript  form. 

R.  L.  S. 

Lincoln  University,  Pa. 
Afrilsoth,  1899. 


Contents 
INTRODUCTION 

GENERAL  VIEW   OF  THE   LANDS   OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  Lands  of  the  Bible  extend  over  the  contiguous  portions  of 
three  continents. — Syria  preeminent  among  the  lands  of 
Sacred  Story. — Its  position  and  boundaries. — Modern  Syria. 
— Syria  Proper. — Palestine. — The  Land  of  Israel. — Data 
for  the  study  of  Sacred  Geography. — Work  of  Exploration 
Societies. — Survey  of  Palestine. — Maps. — Plan  of  Study  .  . 


The  Land  of  Israel 

Part  I 
GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  LAND 


CHAPTER  I 

PHYSICAL   FEATURES 

and  Boundaries. — "  Dan  to  Beersheba." — "  Entering 
of  Hamath  to  River  of  Egypt." — Significance  of  Scriptural 
definitions. — The  Dominion  promised  to  Israel  (defined  in 
general  terms). — The  Inheritance  promised  to  Israel  (de- 
fined in  specific  terms). — Territory  east  of  the  Jordan. — Ter- 
ritory west  of  the  Jordan. — The  Domesday  Book  of  the 
Conquest. — The  boundary  line  on  the  north  (Mount  Hor. — 
Entering  in  of  Hamath,  Ziphron,  Zedad). — The  boundary 
line  on  the  south  (River  of  Egypt — Kadesh  Barnea). — 
Dimensions  of  this  Greater  Palestine. — All  of  its  territory 
xv 


XVI 


Contents 


included  in  the  Divine  allotment. — Stress  to  be  laid  upon 
authorized  possession  rather  than  upon  permanent  occupa- 
tion.— Israel  reproved  for  failure  to  occupy  the  whole  land 
at  once. — Descriptive  lists  given  of  the  unoccupied  portions. 
— Conquests  of  David  prepared  the  way  for  the  occupation  of 
the  whole  land. — The  promised  heritage  becomes  the  actual 
possession  during  the  Golden  Age  of  the  Hebrew  nation. — 
Scriptural  statements  concerning  the  recognized  boundaries 
during  this  period. — The  land,  as  thus  described,  a  unity 
with  respect  to  its  physical  features. 

Position  among  the  Nations. — Its  Isolation. — Its  Central  Lo- 
cation.— Its  relation  to  the  chief  centres  of  civilization  of 
three  Continents. — The  «  High  Bridge  "  between  the  basins 
of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates. 

Configuration  and  Natural  Divisions. — Preeminently  "  a  land 
of  hills  and  valleys ;  of  fountains  and  depths  that  spring  out  of 
valleys  and  hills." — Divides  naturally  into  four  longitudinal 
sections:  Two  parallel  mountain  ranges;  and  two  corre- 
sponding depressions. 

1.  The  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  Sections. — Run  continu- 
ously side  by  side  throughout  the  land,  except  the  distinct 
break  made  by  Plain  of  Esdraelon. — General  features  of  the 
Lebanon  range. — Prominent  Elevations  (Dhar  el  Khodib, 
10,052,   Jebel   Mukhmal,  10,016,  Jebel  Sunnin,  8,500). — 
Range  corrugated  by  waclies  running  east  and  west. — Gen- 
eral features  of  the  Anti-Lebanon  range. — Broader  surface. 
— No  distinct  break — slopes  gradually  to  desert  on  eastern 
side. — Culminates  in  heights  of  Hermon,  9,383  feet. 

2.  The  Lowland  Sections. — (i)  The  Maritime  Plain. — Coast 
line    remarkable  for  its  straight,  unbroken  sweep. — Only 
one  natural  harbor. — Continuity  broken  by  Mount  Carmel. 
— Upper  portion  a  narrow  strip,  140  miles  in  length.-^The 
lower  portion  a  broad  undulating  plain,  widening  toward 
the  south. — (2)     The  Valley  or  Cleft  between  the  moun- 
tains.— This  a  phenomenon  unequalled  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face.— Upper    portion    known    as  the  Lebanon  valley,  or 
Ccele   Syria. — Its  two  Rivers,   the    Litany   and   Orontes: 
lower  portion  known  as  the  Valley  of  the  Jordan. —  Its  low- 
est level  2,600  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  Sea. — Summary 
of  most  striking  features  of  the  land,  viewed  as  a  whole. 


Contents  xvii 

Geological  Structure. — Limestone  the  predominating  element. 
— Basalt  the  most  conspicuous  surface  formation  next  to 
limestone. — Granite  and  gneiss  in  Negeb. — Red  sandstone 
outcrops  from  sides  of  Lebanon. — Rich  alluvial  deposits  in 
valleys  and  on  plains 5-21 

CHAPTER  II 

NATURAL   HISTORY 

(i)  Climate  and  Productions.— Summer  and  Winter.— Wet 
and  dry  seasons. — Former  and  latter  rains. — The  harvest 
periods — Remarkable  range  of  levels  and  corresponding 
variation  in  climate. 

'2)  Flora  and  Fauna. — Four  distinct  zones  represented. — 
Species  range  from  those  indigenous  to  Alpine  heights,  to 
those  having  affinities  in  Nubia  or  Equatorial  Africa. — 
Species  recently  described  and  catalogued  in  Dr.  Post's 
Flora  number  3,416. — Trees  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. — 
Wild  animals  remaining,  and  extinct 22-'+ s- 

CHAPTER  III 

EARLY   INHABITANTS   OF   THE   LAND 

i'.  Canaanites. — (I)  Philistines. — (2)  Phoenicians. — Lan- 
guage of  Canaan. — Canaan  and  Gilead. — Canaanites  of 
the  Jordan  valley. 

2.  Hittites. — Concentrated  principally  in  Northern  Syria. — 
Land  of  the  Hittites. — Carchemish  and  Kadesh. — Hittite  set- 
tlements as  far  south  as  Hebron. 

3.  Amorites. — Preceded  Hittites  in  occupation  of  Canaan. — 
Occupied  greater  part  of  mountain  region  on  both  sides  of 
the    Jordan. — Land    of    the    Hittites. — Og  and  Sihon. — 
Lachish. 

4.  Hivites. — Occupied    district     north    of    Jerusalem. — The 
Hivite  Confederacy. 

5.  Perrizites. — Possibly     peasantry     of    the     time. — Lower 
Galilee  and  foothills  of  Ephraim. 

6.  Jebusites. — Appear  only  in  connection  with  Jerusalem  and 
environs. 

Aboriginal  tribes  mentioned  in  Scripture. — Avim,  Horites, 
Rephaim,  Anakim 


XV111 


Contents 


CHAPTER  IV 

TRIBAL   AND   POLITICAL   DIVISIONS 

J.  The  Division  among  the  Tribes. — Recovery  of  old  lines 
of  division. — Boundaries  conform  to  natural  features  of 
the  country. — Evidences  of  survey  and  apportionment. 

Limits  of  the  Several  Tribes. — Judah,  Simeon,  BenjamI,., 
Ephraim,  Dan,  Manasseh,  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Asher, 
Naphtali.  —  Limits  of  the  two  and  one  half  tribes  beyond 
Jordan,  Manasseh,  Gad,  Reuben. — The  Cities  of  Refuge. 

2.  Limits  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  after  the 
death  of  Solomon. 

3.  Political    Divisions    in    the    time    of  Christ. — Galilee, 
Samaria,  Judea,  Idumea. — Divisions  of  the  Trans- Jordanic 
territory. — Gaulanitis,      Auranitis,      Iturea,     Trachonitis, 
Batanaea,  Perea  and  Decapolis 36-43 


CHAPTER  V 

HIGHWAYS   AND   CARAVAN   ROUTES 

Main  routes  connecting  the  Land  of  Israel  with  the  outside 
world. — The  coast  road  the  oldest  and  most  notable  of  four 
main  lines  of  travel. — Egyptian  and  Assyrian  tablets  on  this 
route  at  Dog  River. 

Main  routes  of  local  character  within  the  limits  of  the  land. — 
Public  roadways  mentioned  in  Scripture. — Roman  roads. — 
Chariots.— Khans  ..  


CHAPTER  VI 

PRESENT   CONDITION   OF   THE   LAND 

A  land  in  ruins  as  well  as  a  land  of  ruins. — Heights  denuded 
of  trees. — Terraces  broken  down. — Soil  washed  away. — 
Ruined  cities  and  towns  without  inhabitants. — The  rugged 
framework  of  the  land  with  all  its  characteristic  features  yet 
remain. — Marked  changes  for  the  better  within  the  past  dec- 
ade.— Carriage  roads. — Railroads. — Hotels,  etc. — Signs  of 
Providential  oversight  and  the  dawning  of  a  better  day  .  .  . 


47- 


Contents  xix 

CHAPTER  VII 

HISTORY   AND   ASSOCIATIONS 

Relation  between  the  History  and  the  Geography  of  the  Holy 
Land. — Three  periods  of  national  or  provincial  occupation, 
viz :  The  Canaanite,  Israelite  and  Gentile. 

1.  The  Canaanite  Period. — Comes  into  view  about  2000  B.  c. 
— Monumental  Evidences. 

(1)  Canaan  as  a  Babylonian  Province. — Designated  in  cunei- 
form  records   as    the    land   of  the  Amorites. — Records  of 
Sargon,  Naram-sin,  and  Gudea  establish  the   fact  of  the 
dependence  of  Canaan  before  the  birth  of  Abram. — Near 
the  close  of  this  period  (c.  1600  B.  c.)  evidences  multiply  of 
a  larger  population  and  a  higher  grade  of  civilization. 

(2)  Canaan  as  an  Egyptian  Province. — Dates  from  battle  of 
Megiddo. — Period  of  Egyptian  domination  nearly  three  cen- 
turies.— Testimony  of    Tell   Amarna    tablets. — Names  of 
principal  cities  appear  in  annals  of  Egyptian  kings. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Period. — Covers  a  stretch  of  nearly  fifteen 
centuries. — Territory  of   Israel    cut    short   after  death  of 
Solomon. — Kingdom  of  Syria  arises  and  menaces  the  safety 
of  the  northern  kingdom. — Conquests  of  the  Assyrians  and 
ultimate  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. — Ten  tribes  carried 
away  B.  c.  721.     Kingdom  of  Judah  suffers  reverses  and 
becomes  a  province  of  Babylon  B.  c.  606. — Jerusalem  de- 
stroyed B.  c.  587. — After  the  return  from  the  Captivity  the 
Jews  dwelt  securely  under  the  protectorate  of  Persian  em- 
pire for  200  years. — Following  this  are  periods  of  Mace- 
donian, Egyptian,  Maccabean  and  Roman  rule. 

3.  The  Gentile  Period. — Dates  from  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
— Jews  banished  from   Palestine  by  order  of  Hadrian. — 
Roman  supremacy  ends  A.  D.  614. — A  brief  period  of  Persian 
rule  followed  by  supremacy  of  Arabs  and  Turks. — Period  of 
the  Crusades  the  only  interruption  to  Moslem  rule  for  more 
than  a  thousand  years. — Impress  of  Crusaders  all  over  west- 
ern Palestine. — A  deeper  and  more  abiding  impression  left 
upon  the  land  by  the  centuries  of  Greek  and  Roman  occupa- 
tion.— Monumental  remains  of  Graeco-Roman  civilization. — 
Roman  roads. — Christian  emblems  and  inscriptions,  etc. — 
Sacred  Associations  of  the  Land. — Stands  apart  from  all  as 

the « Holy  Land." .    ,    ,    .    ,   ,    ,    , 50-58 


XX 


Contents 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  TESTIMONY  OF  THE  LAND  TO  THE  BOOK 
Importance  of  the  study  of  the  Land  as  a  supplemental  evi- 
dence to  the  historical  accuracy  of  the  Scriptures. — Topo- 
graphical details  fit  in  with  the  Biblical  narratives. — One 
answers  to  the  other  as  the  die  to  its  impress. — Both  fit  to- 
gether into  one  unique  and  grandly  comprehensive  plan. — 
Testimony  of  modern  explorers: — Robinson,  Thomson, 
Renan,  Stanley,  Conder,  Besant 59-63 


Part  II 
SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  THE  LAND 


The  First  Longitudinal  Section 
•  CHAPTER  IX 

THE  MARITIME  PLAIN  NORTH  OF  MOUNT  CARMEL 

Separated  by  the  Ladder  of  Tyre  into  two  portions,  known  as 
Plains  of  Phoenicia  and  Acre. — Description  of  Ladder  of 
Tyre. 

i.  The  Phoenician  Plain. — Length  and  breadth. — Coast  line. 
— Palm  belt. — Low  hills. — Noted  streams  which  cross  the 
plain: — Eleutherus,  Adonis,  Lycus,  Bostrenus,  Litany. — 
Local  subdivisions  of  plain : — Tripoli,  Berytus,  Sidon, 
Tyre. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Tripolis,  Tell  Arka,  Gebal,  Beirut,  Sidon, 
Zarephath,  Tyre. 

a.  The  Plain  of  Acre. — Extent  and  boundaries. — Crescent 
shaped  shore  line. — Harbor. — Rivers. — Belus  and  Kishon. 
— Cities  and  Towns:— -Acre  (Ptolemais),  Haifa,  Achzib, 
Harosheth,  Cabul,  Abdon,  Beth-cmek.— The  pass  if  *~ 
Kishon  the  place  of. the  disast«^s  defeat  of  the  army  01 
Sisera 65-7$ 


Contents  xxi 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  MARITIME  PLAIN  SOUTH  OF  MOUNT  CARMEL 

Divisions  of  the  plain  : — Athlit,  Sharon,  Philistia. 

1.  The  Plain  of  Athlit. — Coast  ridge. — Ancient  road. — Towns 
of  Athlit  and  Dor. 

2.  The    Plain   of  Sharon. — Boundaries. — Characteristic  fea- 
tures.— Crossed  by  several  perennial  streams  : — The  Zerka, 
Mufjir,   Iskanderuneh,  Aujeh. — The    Nahr    Rubin  divides 
Sharon  from  Philistia. — Cities  and  Towns : — Caesarea,  Jaffa, 
Harbor  of  Jaffa,  Lydda,  Ono,   Hadid,  Neballat,  Ramleh, 
Antipatris,    Gilgal. — Roadways. — Railroad    and    Carriage 
road  to  Jerusalem. 

3.  The    Philistine   Plain. — Extent  and  General  Features 

South  of  Gaza  a  pastoral   region. — Kingdom  of  Gerar. — 
Plain  north  of  Gaza  a  vast  grain-field. — Soil  porous. — Streams 
find  their  way  underground  to  the  sea. — Water  supply  easily 
obtained  by  boring  or  sinking  wells. — Orchards  and  gardens 
in  vicinity  of  towns  and  villages. — Chief  cities  and  note- 
worthy  sites  of  ancient    Philistia — Ekron,  Ashdod,  Gath, 
Askelon,     Gaza,     Jabneel,     Libnah,    Makkedah,    Migdol, 
Lachish. — Results  of  excavations  at  Lachish  (Tell  el  Hesy) 
Eglon. — Gerar. — Evidences  that  the  whole  of  the  Philistine 

PUin  was  a  thickly  populated  region  in  the  past 79-96 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE   SHEPHELAH 

Usage  of  term  by  latest  authorities. — Valleys  of  the  Shep- 
helah.— Ajalon,  Sorek,  Elah,  Zephathah,  Wady  el  Hesy, 
Wady  esh  Sheriah. 

Towns  of  the  Shephelah  . — Ajalon,  Gimzo,  Beit  Nuba,  Emmaus, 
Gezer,  Jabneel,  Zorah,  Eshtaol,  Beth  Shemesh,  Timnath, 
Camp  of  Dan,  Shocoh,  Adullum.Tell  es  San,  A/ekah.Tell 
Zakariya,  Beit  Jibrin,  Mareshah. — Ruined  sites  of  unknown 
towns  and  villages  all  over  this  region. — The  theatre  of 
many  notable  events  in  human  history. — Its  possessors  held 
all  the  gateways  of  approach  to  the  Holy  City  from  the 
west 97-IOS 


xxii  Contents 

The  Second  Longitudinal  Section 
CHAPTER  XII 

THE  MOUNTAINS  OF  LEBANON  AND  GALILEE 
Z.  Lebanon. — Term  applied  to  the  high  mountains  of  the 
Lebanon  range. — Characteristics  of  Lebanon. — Its  beauty, 
sublimity,  and  wonderful  variety  of  scenery  and  production. 
— Cedars  of  Lebanon. — Principal  rivers. — Deeply  cleft 
chasms. — Gorges  of  the  Kadisha  and  Litany. — Natural 
bridges. — Twelve  hundred  modern  villages. — Zahleh. — Car- 
riage road  over  Lebanon. 

2.  The  Mountains  of  Galilee. — Boundaries  and  characteristic 
features. — Mount  Naphtali. — Jebel  Jermuk  (3,934)  the 
dominant  peak. — Interspersed  Plains. — El  Buttauf. — Turan. 
— Ramah. — Mountain  of  the  Beatitudes. — Wady  Hamam. 
— Storied  caves. 

Noteworthy  Places. — Kedesh,  Hazor,  Edrei,  Safed,  Janoah,  Mig- 
dal  El,  Heleph,  Horem,  Beth  Anath,  Iron,  Beth  Shemesh, 
Ramah,  En  Hazor,  Hukkok,  Zebulun,  Gischala,  Nazareth. — 
Fountain  of  Mary. — Outlook  from  hill  above  Nazareth. — 
Sepphoris,  Cana  of  Galilee,  Khurbet  Kana,  Gath-hepher, 
Bethlehem,  Japhia 106-119 

CHAPTER  XIII 

THE   PLAIN    OF   ESDRAELON 

Opens  up  a  natural  passage-way  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Jordan  Valley. — Divisions  of  the  Plain. — Ancient  and  mod- 
ern names. 

Esdraelon  Proper. — Triangular  in  outline. — Gateways  of  Es- 
draelon. — Fertility. — Present  condition. — The  Kishon  river. 
— Ancient  Sites : — Tell  el  Kasis,  Jokneam,  Megiddo,  Battle- 
fields in  front  of  Megiddo,  Taanach,  Hadad  Rimmon,  En 
gannim,  Jezreel,  Shunem,  Chisloth  Tabor. 

Eastern  Extension  of  the  Plain. — Divides  into  three  branches. 
— Wady  Bireh. — Valley  of  Jezreel. — Fountain  of  Jezreel. — 
Hill  of  Moreh.— Beth  Shittah.— Bethshan. 

Mountains  of  Esdraelon:  (I)  Gilboa. — Characteristics  and  his- 
tory.— Jelbon. — Mezar. — (2)  Little  Ilcrmon. — Characteris- 
tic features. — Hill  of  Morch. — Nain.— Endor. — (3)  Mount 


Contents  xxiii 

Tabor. — Symmetrical  from  base  to  crown. — Range  of  vision 
from  summit  of  Tabor. 
Stirring  events  connected  with  Esdraelon  and  its  outgoings  .    .  120-133 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   MOUNTAINS   OF   EPHRAIM 

Characteristic  features. — Mount  Carmel. — The  Excellency  of 
Carmel. — Place  of  the  conflict  been  Elijah  and  the  priests 
of  Baal. — The  Hill  of  Samaria. — Location  and  surround- 
ings.— The  City  of  Samaria  : — Its  glorious  beauty. — Its  his- 
tory as  the  Capital  of  the  ten  tribes. — Its  magnificence  in 
the  time  of  Christ. 

The  mountains  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim. — Topography  of  site  of  the 
ratification  of  the  book  of  the  Law. — Panoramic  view  from 
Mount  Ebal. — Baal  Hazor. — Highest  peak  of  Mount  Eph- 
raim. — Landmark  on  border  line  between  Ephraim  and 
Benjamin. 

Interspersed  Plains. — Dothan  (Caravan  route)  Tell  Dothan, 
Mukhna,  Vale  of  Shechem. 

Wadies.— Farah,  Aujeh,  Arah,  Selhab,  Abu  Nar,  Shair,  Kanah, 
Deir  Balut,  Ishar,  Nimr. 

Towns  and  Sacred  Sites : — Shechem,  Jacob's  Well,  Sychar,  Be- 
lata,  Joseph's  Tomb,  Salim,  JEnon,  Tulluza,  Tirzah,  Thebez 
Bezek,  Samaria,  Dothan,  Bethulia,  Awertah,  Tombs  of 
Eleazar  and  Phinehas,  Taanath  Shiloh,  Arumah,  Janoah, 
Timnath  Serah,  Neby  Nun,  Tiphsah,  Shiloh,  Lebonah, 
Gilgal 134-157 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE   MOUNTAINS    OF   BENJAMIN 

Boundaries  and  characteristic  features. — A  mountain  fastness. — 

Isolated  knolls. — Terraced  slopes  and  alluvial  basins. — A 

land  m  ruins  as  well  as  a  land  of  ruins. — Neby  Samwil  the 

probable  site  of  Mizpeh. — "  Mountjoye  "  of  the  Crusaders. 

Wadies  and  Ravines. — Wadies :  Nuweimeh,  Kelt,  Suweinet, 

el  Hod. 

Towns  and  Sacred  Sites  of  Benjamin. — Gophna,  Bethel,  Berj 
Beitin,  Beth-aven,  Ai,  Et  Tell,  Rock  Rimmon,  MichmaaS^ 
Geba,  Beeroth,  Ramah,  Gibeah  of  Saul,  Tell  el  Ful,  Anathoth, 


xxiv  Contents 

The  Beth-horons,  Gibeon,  Pool  of  Gibeon,  Place  of  the  Taber- 
nacle and  Altar,  Nob. 

Places  of  minor  importance  : — Archi,  Sechu,  Baal  Tamar,  Gede- 
rah,  Ananiah,  Razor,  Gibeath,  Kirjath,  Mozah,  Chesalon, 
Parah,  Alemeth,  Debir,  Eleph 158-169 

CHAPTER  XVI 

JERUSALEM    AND    ITS    ENVIRONS 

Elevation  and  Environment. — Kedron  Valley. — Hinnon  Val- 
ley.— Wady  en  Nar. — Accumulations  of  rubbish. — Direction 
and  sweep  of  ancient  walls. — The  Mountains  around. — 
Internal  divisions. — Ridge  on  western  side. — Ridge  on  east- 
ern side. — Tyropceon  valley. — Lateral  valleys. — Acra  and 
Zion. — Bczetha,  Moriah  and  Ophel. — Rubbish  and  wreck- 
age of  not  less  than  eight  cities  below  the  present  city. — 
Rock  levels  and  general  contour  lines  obtained  by  repeated 
excavations. — Appearance  of  modern  city. — Walls  and 
Gates. — Quarters : — i  The  Armenian  Quarter  :  Citadel. — 
Tower  of  Hippicus. — Tower  of  David. — Palace  of  Herod. — 
The  Armenian  Convent.— English  Church.— Church  of  St 
James. 

2.  The  Christian  Quarter: — The  Muristan. — Pool  of  Heze- 
kiah. — Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

3.  The  Moslem   Quarter : — Largest   division   of  the  city. — 
Governor's  Palace. — Barracks.— Consulates. — Church  of  St. 
Anne. — Pool  of  Bethesda. — Via  Dolorosa. — Birket  Israil. — 
Cotton  Grotto. — Jeremiah's  Grotto. — Geological  formation 
of  Jerusalem  plateau. 

4.  The  Jewish   Quarters  : — Synagogues. — Dilapidated   tene- 
ments.— The   Wailing   Place. — Huge   blocks  of   stone  in 
lower  course  of  wail. 

5.  The    Temple    Area: — Summit   of  Moriah. — Quadrangle, 
thirty-five  acres  in  area. — The  Dome  of  the  Rock. — The 
Sakhra.— Its  relation  to  the  Holy  House.— Cave  under  the 
rock. — Threshing  floor  of  Oman. — The  water  supply  of  the 
Temple  Area. — The  Great  Sea. — Thirty  underground  reser- 
voirs.— Walls   of  the  Temple  Area. — Fortress  of  Antonia 
and  connecting  wall. — Height  t:f  wall  at  northwest  corner. 
— Phoenician  characters  TOO  feet  below  the  surface. — The 
Golden   Gate. — The   Southeast  Corner. — Warren's  excava- 


Contents  xxv 

tions. — Character  of  masonry. — Solomon's  Stables. — The 
Single,  Triple  and  Double  Gates  of  the  South  wall.— Hul- 
dah  Gate  identified  with  the  Double  Gate. — Vaulted  passage 
and  vestibule. — Robinson's  Arch. — Remains  of  two  ancient 
bridges  connecting  Zion  with  Moriah. — Wilson's  Arch. — 
Barclay's  Gate. — Sir  Charles  Warren's  conclusions  respect- 
ing the  walls  and  the  several  buildings  which  they  enclosed. 
— General  plan  of  first  and  second  Temples. — The  Court 
of  the  Gentiles  and  its  Cloisters. — The  Terraced  Mountain, 
viewed  as  a  whole. — Its  hallowed  memories. 

Outside  the  Walls. —  I.  Catacombs  and  Tombs. — Tombs  of  the 
Kings  and  Judges. — Tomb  west  of  the  probable  site  of 
Golgotha. — Tombs  of  Jehoshaphat,  Zachariah,  Absalom  and 
St.  James. — Reputed  tomb  of  David. — Aceldama. — The 
Place  of  the  Crucifixion.— The  Mount  of  Olives.— Three 
distinctly  marked  summits. — Church  of  the  Ascension.— 
View  from  Olivet. — Bethany. — The  place  where  Jesus 
wept  over  Jerusalem. — The  place  of  the  Ascension. — The 
Garden  of  Gethsemane. — The  King's  Dale. — King's  Gar- 
den.— Gehenna. — Plain  of  Rephaim. 

Pools  and  Sources  of  Water  Supply. — Fountain  of  the  Virgin 
or  En  Rogel. — Stone  of  Zoheleth. — Village  of  Siloam. — 
Rock  hewn  tunnel. — Pool  of  Siloam. — Siloam  Inscription. 
— Recent  excavations. — Restored  pool. — Ancient  stairway 
leading  up  to  city. — Byzantine  Church. — Lower  Pool. — Bir 
Eyub. — Mamilla  Pool. — Sultan's  Pool. — Low-level  Aque- 
duct.— High-level  Aqueduct. — Inverted  syphon  two  miles 
in  length. — The  Jaffa  Suburb. — Colonies  and  charitable 
institutions. — Population  of  Jerusalem. 

Southern  Wall  of  Ancient  Jerusalem. — Wall  recovered  by 
Warren  on  eastern  brow  of  Ophel. — Summary  of  discov- 
eries made  by  Dr.  Bliss  along  the  line  of  the  southern  wall. 
— The  pools  of  Siloam  and  all  the  available  portions  of  the 
slopes  of  Zion  and  Ophel  included  in  the  circuit  of  the  an- 
cient walls. — History  and  influence  of  the  Holy  City  .  .  .  170-233 

CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   MOUNTAINS    OF   JUDAH 

Characteristic  features. — Land  of  the  olive  and  vine. — A  pas- 
toral land. — Wilderness  of  Judah. — A  land  not  inhabited. — 


XXVI 


Contents 


Place  of  John's  seclusion.— Place  of  the  temptation  of  Jesus. 

Wadies.— En  Nar,  El  Ghar,  Surar,  Es  Sunt,  Afranj.— The  des- 
olate heaps  of  Judah. 

Sites  which  have  been  identified. — Kirjath  Jearim. — Emmaus. 
— Bethlehem. — Church  of  the  Nativity. — Mar  Saba. — 
Etham. — Tekoa. — Hebron. — Vale  of  Hebron. — Vineyards 
of  Hebron. — Cave  of  Machpelah. — Pools  of  Hebron. — Ziph. 
— Carmel.— Maon.— Engedi.— Cliff  of  Ziz.— Valley  of  Ber- 
achah. — Masada. — Hareth.. — Keilah. — Places  of  minor  im- 
portance :  Bethzur,  Gedor,  Beth  Tappuach,  Adoraim, 
Arab,  Juttah,  Socoh,  Jattir,  Debir 224-236 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   NEGEB   OR   SOUTH    COUNTRY 

Limits  north  and  south. — Subdivisions. — Characteristics. — Pres- 
ent condition. 

Sites  of  Special  Interest. — Beersheba. — Ancient  wells. — Asso- 
ciations with  the  Patriarchs. — Arad. — Sheba. — Aroer. — Re- 
hobo  th. — Zephath  (Hormah). — Plain  Es  Seer. — Mount 
Halak. — Wady  Feqreh. — Mount  Seir. — Kadesh  Barnea. — 
Recovery,  description  and  history  of  this  long-lost  site. — 
Mount  Hor  (Jebel  Madurah). — The  traditional  Mount  Hor. 
—Wady  Madurah.— Eshcol— Hagar's  Well.— Probable 
direction  of  the  southern  border  line  of  the  Land  of  Israel  .  237-249 


The  Third  Longitudinal  Section 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   VALLEY   OF   LEBANON 

Length  and  breadth. — Secondary  ridge  on  eastern  side. — Water- 
shed near  Baalbek. — Characteristic  features. — Baalbek. — 
Its  majestic  structures  and  massive  ruins  the  wonder  of  the 
world. — The  three  immense  stones  in  western  wall. — Con- 
nection with  Baal  Gad. — Plain  of  Aven. — Riblah  ....  250-253 


Contents  xxvii 

CHAPTER  XX 

THE   VALLEY    OF   THE   JORDAN 

Wady  et  Teim. — Merj  Ayun. — Derdarah  branch  of  the  Jordan. 
— Ijon  (Tell  Dibbin).— Abel-beth  Maachah.— The  Jordan 
Valley  Proper. — The  three  Lakes. — Subdivisions  of  the 
valley. 

1.  The  Upper  Basin. — Plain  of  the  Huleh. — Perennial  sources 
of  the  Jordan: — (i)   The  Fountain  of  the  Hasbany  near 
village  of  Hasbeiya. — Most  remote  source — Elevation  1,700 
feet.— Descent  in  115  miles  3,000  feet.— (2)   The  Fountain 
of  the  Leddan. — Chief  source. — Elevation  500  feet. — Tell 
el  Kady.— Oak  at  Dan.— Rank  vegetation.— (3)   The  Foun- 
tain of  Banias. — Springs  from  southern  base  of  Hermon. — 
Prominent  features  of  the  place. — Elevation  1,080. — Cave 
and  shrine  of  the   god  Pan. — This  "a  very  sanctuary  of 
waters." — Castle   of  Shubeiah. — Lake   Huleh. — Marsh   of 
Huleh. — Papyrus  jungles. — John  Macgregor's  explorations 
in  the  Rob  Roy. — Elevation  of  Lake  Huleh. — Semi-tropical 
climate  and  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  Huleh. 

2.  The    Descent    between    the    Lakes.— Bridge   of  Jacob's 
Daughters. — Below  it  a   succession   of  rapids  to  level  of 
lower  basin. — Hills  of  Naphtali. 

3.  The  Galilean    Basin. — Lake  deep  down  in  this  secluded 
basin  (-682  feet). — Different  characteristics  of  mountains  on 
eastern  and  western  sides. — Plain  of  Gennesaret. — Wonder- 
ful fertility  of  the  plain. — Hallowed  memories  of  the  Lake 
and  the  region  around  it. — Towns  on  the  Coasts  of  Galilee : 
— Tiberias,  Magdala,  Capernaum,  Tell  Hum,  Bethsaida  of 
Galilee,  Bethsaida  Julias,  Chorazin,  Gergesa,  Wady  Fik, 
Gamala,  Semakh,  Tarichaea. 

$.  The  Ghor. — Length  and  breadth. — Contractions  and  ex- 
pansions.— Plain  of  Jordan. — Ghor-es  Seisaban. — Ciccar. — 
Climate  and  Products. — Tributaries  of  the  Jordan. 
Places  of  Special  Interest : — Abel  Meholah. — Kurn  Sartaba. 
— Adam. — Zaretan. — Succoth. — Jericho. — Ain  es  Sultan. — 
Tell  es  Sultan.— Tropical  luxuriance  of  the  plain. — The 
three  Jerichos.— Gilgal.— Belh  Hogla.— The  Cities  of  the 
Plain.— Plain  of  Abel  Shittim  (Plain  of  Moab).— The  last 
camping  place  of  Israel  east  of  Jordan. — Beth-nimrah. — 
Abel  Shittim. — Beth-haran. — Zoar. — Beth-jeshimoth. — Prog- 


xxviii  Contents 

ress  of  Jordan  through  the  Ghor. — The  Zor  or  high  level 
channel. — The  "  swellings  of  Jordan." — Fords  of  the  Jordan. 
— Bethabara. — Bridges  and  ferries. — Unique  features  of  the 
Jordan. — History  of  the  Jordan. 

5.  The  Dead  Sea  Basin. — Extent  and  characteristic  features. 
— Jebel  Usdum.— Ghor  es-Safieh.— El  Lisan.— The  Dead 
Sea. — Unique  features 254-288 


The  Fourth  Longitudinal  Section 
CHAPTER  XXI 

THE   ANTI-LEBANON    MOUNTAINS 

Anti-Lebanon  Proper  (The  East  Mountain). — Distinguishing 
features. — The  Abana  river. — Ain  el  Fijeh. — Abila. — Zebe- 
dany  Plain. — Zedad. — Hazar-enan. — Ziphron. — Hamath. — 
Damascus. — Plain  of  Damascus. — The  Merj. — The  Pharpar 
river. — Damascus  the  Paradise  of  the  Arab  world. — 365 
canals. — 30,000  gardens. — Its  antiquity  and  marvellous  his- 
tory.— The  great  Mosque. — Helbon. — Mount  Hermon: — 
The  Hejrmons. — Panoramic  view  from  summit  of  Hermon. — 
Circuit  of  the  waters. — True  source  of  the  Jordan. — The 
Place  of  the  Transfiguration. — Hermon  within  the  borders 
of  Israel's  possession 289-301 

CHAPTER  XXII 

THE    TRANS-JORDANIC    HIGHLANDS 

Extent  of  Eastern  Palestine. — General  characteristics. — Old  Tes- 
tament divisions  : 

I.  Bashan  : — Boundaries. — District  of  Jedur. — Jaulan. — Golan. 
— Oak  forests. — Tell  Ashtarah, — Aphek. — The  Hauran. — 
En  Nukra. — Hajj  road. — Damascus. — Hauran  railroad. — 
Natural  wealth  of  Hauran. — Harvests. — Threshing  floors. 
— The  Lejah. — An  uplifted  mass  of  congealed  lava. — Its 
cavernous  depths  and  winding  paths. — Towns  of  the  Lejah. 
— The  stronghold  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan. — Edrei. — 
Kenath.  —  Jebel  Hauran.  —  Batanaea.  —  Salcah. — 
Kerioth. — Bozrah. — Ruined  cities  of  the  Hauran. — 
Giant  cities. — Greek  and  Roman  types  of  architecture. 
Monumental  evidences  of  existence  of  active  Christian 


Contents  xxix 

communities.  —  Records  of  the  days  of  persecution  and 
martyrdom. — Divergent  views  with  respect  to  an- 
tiquity of  Hauran  architecture. — Job's  country. 

2.  Gilead  : — Boundaries     and     general    characteristics. — The 
Yarmuk  river. — The  Jabbok. — Jebel  Ajlun. — The  Belka. — 
Land  of  the  children  of  Ammon. — Wood  of  Ephraim. — Con- 
tinuous forests. — Jebel  Osha. — Outlook  from  Jebel  Osha. — 
Jacob's   route   from  the   East. — Noteworthy  Places  : — Ga- 
dara. — El  Hamma. — Land  of  Tob. — Abila. — Capitolias. — 
Arbela. — Ramoth. — Mizpeh. — Kulat    er   Rubab. — Outlook 
from  Kulat  er  Rubad.— Mahanaim. — Jabesh  Gilead.— Pella. 
— Peniel.  —  Gerasa    (Jerash).  —  Ramoth    Gilead.  —  Suf. — 
Debir. — Beth  Gamul.  —  Rabbath  Ammon.  —  Jogbehah.  — 
Kulat  Zerka. — Jazer. — Castle  of  Hyrcanus. 

3.  Moab. — The    Mishor.— The    Abarim.— The    Callirhoe.— 
Castle  of  Machoerus. — Valley  of  the  Arnon. — Aroer. — Jebel 
Attarus. — Bamath  Baal. — Mount  Pisgah. — Jebel  Siaghah. — 
View  from  Pisgah. — Baal-peor. — High  places  of  Moab. — 
Menhirs,  dolmons,  etc. — Heshbon,  Elalah,  Sibmah,  Medeba. 
— Mosaic  map  of  Palestine. — Mashetta. — Mystery  of  the  des- 
ert.— Baal    Meon. — Dibon. — Moabite  Stone. — Aroer. — Kir 
of  Moab  (Kerak). — The  brook  Zered. — Limit  of  the  wilder- 
ness journeyings 302-338 

Equivalents  of  Arabic  Words 339 

Index 34°~352 


INTRODUCTION 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   LANDS    OF   THE    BIBLE 

THE  Lands  of  the  Bible  extend  over  the  contiguous  sec- 
tions of  three  great  Continents — Asia,  Africa  and  Europe. 

They  lie  between  north  latitude  28°  and  45°;  and  east 
longitude  12°  and  50°.  This  area  includes  the  cradle  of  the 
race,  the  holy  cities,  and  the  chief  centres  of  civilization  and 
empire  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  principal  events  of  Old  Testament  history  are  included  be- 
tween the  four  Seas  of  Western  Asia,  viz  : — the  Mediterranean, 
the  Black,  the  Caspian  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Syria Preeminent  among  all  the  lands  of  Sacred  Story  is 

the  narrow  strip,  inland  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  for  a 
period  antedating  the  Christian  era,  has  been  covered  by  the 
general  name  Syria. 

The  Roman  Province  of  Syria  extended  southward  from 
Mount  Amanus,  a  spur  of  the  Taurus  range,  to  the  desert 
which  borders  the  land  of  Egypt.  Its  eastern  boundary  was 
the  upper  Euphrates  and  the  Desert  of  Arabia.  This  rugged 
and  singularly-diversified  tract  was  nearly  400  miles  in  length. 
In  breadth  it  varied  from  sixty-five  to  150  miles. 

Modern  Syria,  with  but  slight  divergence  in  outline,  covers 
nearly  the  same  extent  of  territory. 

Syria  Proper. — In  its  ordinary  acceptation  the  name  is 
restricted  to  the  portion  of  territory  which  lies  north  of  the 
southern  slopes  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon. 

Palestine  is  the  familiar  designation  of  that  section  of 
Southern  Syria  which  was  permanently  occupied  by  the  tribes 
of  Israel.  The  name,  as  originally  used  in  the  Bible  and  in 
SLncient  history  was  limited  to  the  land  of  the  Philistines. 

1 


2  Introduction 

There  are  some  writers  of  note  who  confine  the  name,  at  the 
present  time,  to  the  territory  of  _ Israel  west  of  the  Jordan,  but 
the  best  authorities,  including  the  Palestine  Exploration  Society, 
have  given  to  the  name  a  definite  signification,  which  includes 
the  permanent  possession  of  the  twelve  tribes  on  both  sides  of 
the  river. 

The  length  of  Palestine,  as  usually  reckoned,  from  Dan  to 
Beersheba  is  only  144  miles.  The  entire  area  is  less  than 
11,000  square  miles. 

The  Land  of  Israel. — As  outlined  and  described  by  the 
sacred  writers  the  possession  of  Israel  extended  northward  to 
the  "Entering  in  of  Hamath,"  and  southward  to  the  "River 
of  Egypt"  (Wady  el  Arish).  This  includes  an  area  about 
twice  as  large  as  the  territory  usually  covered  by  the  term 
Palestine.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  characteristic  features,  and 
historic  events  ascribed  to  the  land  of  Israel  cannot  be  com- 
pressed within  the  limited  area  between  Dan  and  Beersheba. 

Data. — Reliable  data  for  the  accurate  study  of  the  Geography 
and  Antiquities  of  this  country,  which  for  long  ages  has  borne 
the  exclusive  title  of  "The  Holy  Land,"  have  been  accumu- 
lated within  the  last  twenty  years ;  and  we  are  no  longer  left  to 
the  uncertainty  of  traditional  lore  or  the  hasty  generalizations 
of  travellers  to  the  East.  As  a  result  of  patient  Iab9rs,  skill- 
fully-conducted excavations,  and  accurate  surveys,  the  promi- 
nent places  and  events,  which  come  successively  into  view  in 
connection  with  the  unfolding  of  the  purpose  of  Redemption, 
have  been  definitely  located  and  accurately  described. 

Prominent  among  the  agencies  to  which  we  are  indebted  for 
this  important  work  are:  "The  Palestine  Exploration  Fund," 
"The  American  Society  for  Palestine  Exploration,"  and  "The 
German  Palestine  Society."  Very  efficient  service  has  been 
rendered  by  M.  Ganneati,  Renan,  and  other  noted  French 
scholars  and  explorers. 

In  Palestine  very  little  remains  to  be  done,  above  ground,  in 
the  way  of  geographical  exploration  and  survey,  except  in  a 


Introduction  3 

limited  portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan.  A  triangu- 
lation  survey  of  Western  Palestine  was  commenced  by  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund  in  the  autumn  of  1872,  and  was 
completed,  so  far  as  the  field  work  was  concerned,  in  1877. 
A  list  of  10,000  names  was  collected  during  the  progress  of 
this  survey,  and  172  Biblical  sites  were  discovered.  At  the 
present  time  434  out  of  the  622  Biblical  names  west  of  the 
Jordan  have  been  identified  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
certainty. 

Maps.— The  "Great  Map  of  Western  Palestine"  embodies 
the  results  of  this  monumental  work  of  exploration,  and  is 
recognized  as  the  standard  of  authority  in  this  department  of 
scientific  research.  On  this  map  the  natural  features  of  the 
country  have  been  laid  down  in  exact  detail,  on  the  scale  of 
one  inch  to  the  mile,  as  beautifully  and  accurately  as  on  the 
Ordnance  map  of  England.  It  has  been  fittingly  described  as 

A  magnificent  map  with  every  road  and  ruin  marked,  and  every  con- 
spicuous object  filled  in ;  with  the  hills  and  mountains  correctly  delineated 
and  shaded,  with  the  rivers  and  brooks  all  running  in  the  right  directions ; 
with  every  vineyard,  every  spring  of  water  and  almost  every  clump  ot 
trees  set  down  in  its  place,  and  with  thousands  of  names  that  never  ap- 
peared on  a  Palestine  map  before.1 

The  survey  of  Eastern  Palestine,  commenced  by  the  Ameri- 
can Exploration  Society  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Selah 
Merrill,  has  been  completed,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Pal- 
estine Exploration  Fund,  for  a  portion  of  the  country  only. 
Enough  has  been  done,  however,  to  secure  a  reliable  map. 
This  has  been  published  in  connection  with  a  reduced  map  of 
Western  Palestine  (three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  mile)  under 
the  title  :  "  Old  and  New  Testament  Map  of  Palestine." 

A   Raised   Map   constructed  on  the  same  scale  by  Mr. 

George  Armstrong,   Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Fund,   is  the 

crowning  work  of  all  the  surveys  and  explorations  of  the  past. 

It  shows  at  a  glance  the  relative  heights  and  depressions  of  this 

i  St.  Glair's  Bible  Countries,  p.  123. 


4  Introduction 

remarkably   diversified   land   from   Baalbec   on   the   north  to 
Kadesh  Barnea  on  the  south. 

The  fully-colored  relief  map,  which  is  recommended  as 
the  most  desirable  for  classroom  study  has  "the  seas,  lakes, 
marshes  and  perennial  streams  colored  blue,  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  sites  are  marked  in  red,  the  principal  ones  having  a 
number  to  correspond  with  a  reference  list  of  names,  the  plains 
in  green,  the  rising  ground,  hills  and  mountains  in  various 
tints,  the  olive  groves  and  wooded  parts  of  the  country  stippled 
in  green,  and  the  main  roads  are  shown  in  the  thin  black 
line."  l 

Arrangements  have  been  made  by  the  London  Society  to 
have  this  map  reproduced  by  Mr.  E.  E.  Howell,  of  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  Its  cost  at  the  present  time  is  $55. 

Plan  of  Study. — In  the  description  of  the  various  sections 
and  sites  which  come  within  the  range  of  this  study,  special 
emphasis  will  be  given  to  three  leading  points ;  viz,  Location, 
Characteristics,  and  Associations.  The  entire  work  is  con- 
structed on  this  threefold  arrangement,  with  a  view  to  clear- 
ness of  statement,  and  the  more  ready  retention  of  the  im- 
portant facts  in  memory. 

The  value  of  a  uniform,  natural  and  logical  order  in 
description  and  recitation  in  connection  with  this  study,  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  It  is  this  which  distinguishes  a 
"Text-book"  from  an  ordinary  treatise  on  this  or  any  other 
subject. 

i  Quarterly  Statement,  P.  E.  F.  1894,  P-  93- 


THE  LAND  OF  ISRAEL 

Part  I 
General  View  of  the  Land 

CHAPTER  I 

PHYSICAL    FEATURES 

EXTENT  and  Boundaries. — In  the  introductory  chapter 
the  geographical  position  of  the  Holy  Land  was  described  in 
connection  with  Syria.  All  authorities  are  agreed  that  its  loca- 
tion is  in  the  southern  part  of  Syria,  but  there  is  a  wide  di- 
vergence of  statement  in  reference  to  its  bounding  lines  on  the 
north  and  south. 

While  many  accept  the  familiar  expression  "  from  Dan  to 
Beersheba,"  as  a  sufficiently  exact  geographical  definition,  it  is  a 
notable  fact  that  they  invariably  go  beyond  it  when  giving  a 
complete  description  of  Biblical  places  and  events. 

A  geography  of  the  Holy  Land  can  hardly  be  considered  as 
complete,  which  omits  the  southern  border-lands  of  Judah  and 
Simeon,  associated  with  events  inwoven  with  Israel's  story  from 
the  days  of  the  Patriarchs ;  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
which  marked  the  northern  limit  of  our  Lord's  beneficent 
journeys ;  the  Holy  Mount,  so  conspicuous  from  every  quarter 
of  the  land,  upon  which  once  shone  a  flood  of  light  from  the 

5 


6 


The  Land  of  Israel 


excellent  glory  such  as  "  never  was  on  sea  or  land  "  j  or  tl 
"  goodly  mountain,  even  Lebanon," — mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures not  less  than  sixty-eight  times, — which  Moses  so  longed 
to  behold.  It  seems  reasonable,  also,  that  if  we  are  to  study 
a  Sacred  Geography,  confessedly  based  upon  a  Sacred  Book, 
we  should  give  to  the  statements  of  that  book  the  first  place  in 
authority  and  importance. 

In  comparing  these  statements  we  find  they  relate  to  two 
widely  extended  areas,  one  of  which  was  included  within  the 
other. 

1.  In  the  larger  area  the  borders  are  defined  in  general 
terms,  in  the  promise  given  to  Abraham  and  his  descendants  — 

Gen.  xv.  18,  "  Unto  thy  seed  have  I  given  this  land,  from  the  river 
of  Egypt  unto  the  great  river,  the  river  Euphrates."  Ex.  xxiii.  31,"  I  will 
set  thy  bounds  from  the  Red  Sea  unto  the  sea  of  the  Philistines  and  from 
the  desert  unto  the  river."  (V.  also  Josh.  i.  4;  Ps.  Ixxii.  8.) 

In  the  closing  years  of  David's  reign,  and  throughout  the 
period  of  Solomon's  rule,  this  promise  was  realized,  not  in  a 
virtual  possession,  but  in  a  dominion  or  empire,  vast  in  extent 
and  remarkable  in  its  influence  over  the  nations. 

In  the  exact  language  of  Scripture-corresponding  with  the 
original  promise  — 

"  Solomon  reigned  over  all  the  Kings  from  the  river  even  unto  the  land 
of  the  Philistines  and  to  the  border  of  Egypt "  (2  Chron.  ix.  26).  As 
elsewhere  expressed,  "  Solomon  reigned  over  all  the  kingdoms  from  the 
river  unto  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  unto  the  border  of  Egypt,  they 
brought  presents  and  served  Solomon  all  the  days  of  his  life.  For  he  had 
dominion  over  all  the  region  on  this  side  of  the  river,  from  Tiphsah 
even  to  Azzah  (Gaza),  over  all  the  Kings  on  this  side  of  the  river;  and 
he  had  peace  on  all  sides  round  about  him  "  (i  Kings  iv.  21  and  24). 

2.  In  the  smaller  area  the  boundaries  are  defined  in  specific 
terms,  with   a  view  to  its  occupation   and   possession  by  the 
Hebrew  nation   as  its  peculiar  heritage   among  the  nations. 
With  respect  to  this  territory  the  references  are  numerous  and 
the  various  descriptions,  geographical,  poetical,  and  historical 


General  View  of  the  Land  7 

converge,  with  wonderful  unanimity  within  the  same  boundary 
lines. 

In  the  book  of  Joshua  (xii.  i)  the  possession  of  the  two  and 
one-half  tribes  is  briefly  described  as  "  the  land  on  the  other 
side  Jordan  toward  the  rising  of  the  sun  from  the  river  Arnon 
unto  Mount  Hermon  and  all  the  plain  to  the  east."  In  an- 
other reference,  (Josh.  xiii.  n),  "all  Mount  Hermon,  and  all 
Bashan  unto  Salcah,"  are  included  in  "the  inheritance  which 
Moses  gave  to  these  tribes  beyond  Jordan  eastward." 

In  a  passage  relating  to  the  later  history  it  is  recorded  that 
the  children  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  who  dwelt  in  this 
portion  of  the  land,  "  increased  from  Bashan  unto  Baal -Hermon 
and  Senir,  and  unto  Mount  Hermon"  (i.  Chron.  v.  23). 
Baal-Hermon  has  been  associated  with  one  of  the  three  peaks 
of  Mount  Hermon  (Henderson's  Palestine,  p.  31)  ;  and  Senir, 
according  to  Dr.  Robinson,  is  identified  with  the  ridge  of 
Anti-Lebanon  north  of  Damascus.  (Physical  Geography,  p. 

347-) 

On  the  westward  side  of  the  Jordan  the  boundary  lines  are 
defined  with  remarkable  accuracy  and  distinctness.  "  There  is 
one  document  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures — says  Dean  Stanley — 
to  which  probably  no  parallel  exists  in  the  topographical 
records  of  any  other  nation.  In  the  book  of  Joshua  we  have 
what  may  be  termed,  without  offence  the  Domesday  Book  of 
conquest  of  Canaan.  Ten  chapters  of  that  book  are  devoted 
to  a  description  of  the  country,  in  which  not  only  are  its 
general  features  and  boundaries  carefully  laid  down,  but  the 
names  and  situations  of  its  towns  and  villages  are  enumerated, 
with  a  precision  of  geographical  terms,  which  invites  and  al- 
most compels  a  minute  investigation  "  (Sinai  and  Pal.,  p.  14). 

In  the  apportionment  to  the  nine  and  one-half  tribes,  and  in 
several  instances  in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  nation,  the 
northern  limit  is  defined  as  "The  Entering  of  Hamath " 
(Num.  xxxiv.  8 ;  Judg.  iii.  3 ;  Josh.  xiii.  5  ;  i  Kings  viii.  65 ; 
2  Kings  xiv.  28;  2  Chron.  vii.  8;  Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  etc.). 


8  The  Land  of  Israel 

The  record  of  the  original  allotment  is  as  follows  : 

"  And  this  shall  be  your  north  border ;  from  the  great  sea  ye  shall 
point  out  for  you  Mount  Hor.  From  Mount  Hor  ye  shall  point  out  your 
border  unto  the  entrance  of  Hamath ;  and  the  goings  forth  of  the  border 
shall  be  Zedad.  And  the  border  shall  go  on  to  Ziphron,  and  the  goings 
out  of  it  shall  be  at  Hazar-enan ;  this  shall  be  your  north  border  "  (Num. 
xxxiv.  8,  9). 

The  exact  location  of  Mount  Hor,  the  first  station  on  this 
line  is  not  known,  but  it  was  probably  a  conspicuous  peak  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Lebanon  mountains. 

Dr.  Robinson  locates  the  entrance  of  Hamath  at  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  Lebanon.  l  "All  the  Scripture  notices  con- 
cerning it  show  clearly  that  the  entrance  of  Hamath  was  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  Lebanon  :  and  that  when  the  children  of 
Israel  took  possession  of  the  Promised  Land  this  became  the 
geographical  name  for  the  great  interval  or  depression  between 
the  northern  end  of  Lebanon  and  the  Nusairiyeh  moun- 
tains.* 

Mount  Hor  was  obviously  between  the  seashore  and  the 
Buka'a  (Coele-Syria  Plain). 

"  « The  entering  in  of  Hamath  '  may  then  refer  either  generally  to  the 
whole  of  the  great  depression  affording  as  it  does  an  easy  passage  from 
the  coast  to  the  plain  of  the  Orontes ;  or  specifically  to  the  pass  through 
the  ridge  under  El-Husn  and  the  low  watershed  south  of  the  Buka'a.  . 
.  .  In  either  application  the  phrase  is  intelligible  and  sufficiently  def- 
inite." 2 

This  view  has  been  confirmed  by  recent  explorations,  and  is 
generally  accepted  by  the  best  modern  authorities.  Not  only 
does  this  break  or  valley  furnish  a  natural  passage  way  from  the 

1  Some  authorities  have  associated  the  entrance  of  Hamath  with  the 
low  water  shed  of  the  Litany  and  Orontes  near  Baalbec  in  the  Coele 
Syria  valley,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  fit  in  with  any  of  the  descriptions 
of  the  northern  boundary.  Its  position  in  a  long  valley  running  north 
and  south  might  be  available  for  the  description  of  an  eastern  boundary, 
but  it  seems  impossible  to  make  it  a  point  on  the  northern  frontier. 

*  Robinson's  Researches,  Vol.  3,  p.  568.     *  See  map,  page  65. 


Physical  Features  9 

seacoast  to  Kadesh  and  Hamath,  but  it  is  found  to  be  the  only 
boundary  line  of  natural  formation  south  of  Antioch,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  desert  eastward.1 

Zedad,  now  Sudad,  seventy  miles  northeast  of  Damascus,  is 
the  only  one  of  the  three  towns  on  the  north  border  line  which 
has  been  satisfactorily  identified.  It  lies  out  on  the  edge  of  the 
desert  and  must  have  been  near  Hazar-Enan,  the  northeast 
limit  of  the  land. 

It  is  probable  that  the  border  line  extended  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  from  the  "entrance  of  Hamath" — following  the  base 
of  the  Nusairiyeh  range — to  Ziphron,  on  the  Orontes  plain ;  and 
thence  southeast  to  Zedad  and  Hazar-Enan. 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  is  the  northern  border  of  the  ten 
and  one-half  tribes.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Jordan  the 
northern  limit  seems  to  have  beem  Aram  of  Damascus. 

From  Hazar-Enan  the  east  border  ran  to  Shepham  (location 
is  not  known),  and  thence  to  Riblah  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
Coele-Syria  valley.  From  Riblah  the  border  descended  unto 
the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (Galilee)  eastward.  (Num.  xxxiv.  n.) 

With  respect  to  the  southern  boundary  it  is  definitely  stated 
that  the  limit  was  Kadesh  Barnea,  now  identified  with  Ain 
Gadis,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  This  was  the  noted  resting 
place  of  the  Israelites  before  the  invasion  of  Canaan  :  and  it  is 
afterward  designated  as  the  lowest  town  belonging  to  the  in- 
heritance of  Simeon.  (See  map,  page  237.) 

From  this  point  the  line  extended  westward  to  the  Wady 
el-Arish,  or  river  of  Egypt  which  it  followed  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  (Num.  xxxiv.  3-5  ;  Josh.  xv.  1-4.) 

This,  says  Canon  Tristram,  is  the  boundary  drawn  from  na- 
ture, on  the  north  of  which  is  cultivation,  on  the  south  desert. 

1  It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  reference  is  to  the  Kingdom  or  land 
of  Hamath,  rather  than  to  the  city  which  gave  the  name  to  this  kingdom. 
It  meant,  in  other  words,  the  entrance  from  the  sea  to  the  broad  Valley  of 
the  Orontes  extending  from  Antioch  as  far  southward  as  Riblah  (2  Kings 

XXV.  21). 


10  The  Land  of  Israel 

Briefly  stated  the  boundaries  of  the  whole  land,  as  described 
by  the  Sacred  writers,  were  as  follows,  viz : 

On  the  west  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  on  the  north  the  valley 
leading  from  the  coast, — in  a  northeast  direction — to  Hamath 
or  into  the  land  of  Hamath,  and  then  passing  by  way  of  Zedad 
to  Hazar-Enan  on  the  border  of  the  eastern  desert ;  on  the  east, 
except  the  country  east  of  Anti-Lebanon,  the  border  line  of  the 
desert ;  on  the  south  a  line  on  or  near  the  latitude  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  Dead  Sea,  passing  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  to 
Kadesh  Barnea  and  thence  by  way  of  the  Wady  el-Arish  to  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

The  territory  thus  described  comes  within  the  limits  of 
30°3o'  and  35°  north  latitude.  The  dimensions  of  this 
Greater  Palestine  are  about  290  miles  from  north  to  south : 
and  from  west  to  east  an  average  of  about  100  or  120  miles. 
The  area  is  an  uncertain  quantity  because  of  the  difficulty 
in  fixing  a  definite  limit  to  the  border  line  east  of  the  Jordan. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  it  was  about  25,000  square 
miles,  or  more  than  double  the  area  ordinarily  assigned  to  Pal- 
estine. 

The  principal  objection  advanced  by  modern  authorities  to 
the  acceptance  of  these  Biblically-defined  boundaries,  is  the 
fact  that  only  a  portion  of  this  territory  was  actually  occupied 
by  the  people  of  Israel  as  a  permanent  possession. 

If  this  be  a  valid  objection  it  applies  with  equal  force  to  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  recognized  limits  also  between  Dan 
and  Beersheba.  If  we  lay  the  stress  upon  authorized  possession 
rather  than  upon  permanent  occupation  the  difficulty  vanishes. 
In  the  closing  period  of  the  life  of  Joshua  a  descriptive  list  of 
the  unoccupied  portions  of  Israel's  inheritance  is  given  as  a 
reproof  of  the  tardiness  of  the  people  in  advancing  to  its  con- 
quest. In  this  list  we  find  the  mention,  alongside  of  the  land 
of  the  Philistines,  of  "  the  land  of  the  Giblites,  and  all  Lebanon 
toward  the  sun  rising  from  Baal  Gad  under  Mount  Hermon 
unto  the  entering  into  Hamath."  (Josh.  xiii.  5.) 


Physical  Features  11 

About  four  hundred  years  after  the  conquest  of  Joshua  the 
kingdom  of  David  was  enlarged  and  established  within  the 
limits  described,  in  accordance  with  the  long  deferred  promise. 
As  the  first  step  in  this  greater  conquest,  Jerusalem  was  taken 
from  the  Jebusites  and  made  the  central  Sanctuary,  and  world- 
renowned  Capital  of  Israel.  The  defeat  and  subjection  of  the 
Philistines  gave  to  David  the  frontier  fortress  of  Gaza,  and  the 
undisputed  possession  of  the  southland  border  to  the  river  of 
Egypt.  The  conquest  and  subjection,  in  rapid  succession,  of 
the  territories  of  Moab,  Edom,  Amalek,  and  Ammon  secured 
to  its  farthest  limit  the  eastern  frontier. 

Then,  by  the  defeat  and  overthrow  of  two  powerful  Syrian 
kingdoms,  which  withstood  David,  the  northeast  border  was 
established  to  the  great  river  Euphrates.  In  connection  with 
this  Syrian  campaign  it  is  said  (2  Sam.  viii.  3)  "  David  smote 
also  Hadadezer  the  son  of  Rehob,  king  of  Zobah,  as  he  went  to 
recover  his  border  at  the  river  Euphrates"  An  alliance  with 
Toi,  king  of  Hamath,  and  with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  com- 
pleted the  subjugation  of  the  land. 

In  this  history,  as  has  been  already  intimated — the  twofold 
promise  to  Abraham  and  his  descendants  was  fulfilled.  The 
dominion  of  Israel  was  extended  over  all  the  lands  west  of  the 
Euphrates  :  and  the  hitherto  unoccupied  territory  of  "  the  Land 
of  Israel"  throughout  the  limits  so  carefully  defined  by  Moses 
and  Joshua,  was  appropriated  and  held.  Thus  for  a  period  of 
about  sixty  years — the  golden  age  of  the  Hebrew  nation — the 
promised  heritage  became  the  actual  possession. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  recognized  limit  of  its  extent  during 
this  period  the  statement  is  made  that  Solomon,  at  the  time  of 
the  dedication  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,  made  a  feast  and  all 
Israel  with  him,  a  great  congregation,  "from  the  entering  in  of 
Hamath  unto  the  river  of  Egypt."  (i  Kings  viii.  65.)  At  a 
subsequent  period,  also,  it  was  recorded  that  Jeroboam  II.  re- 
stored the  coast  of  Israel  from  the  entering  of  Hamath  unto 
the  sea  of  the  plain  or  Dead  Sea :  and  again  it  is  said  of  him 


12  The  Land  of  Israel 

that  he  recovered  Damascus  and  Hamath,  which  belonged  to 
Judah,  for  Israel.  (2  Kings  xiv.  25,  28.) 

Still  later  we  find  a  carefully  drawn  sketch  of  the  same  ter- 
ritory exactly  defined  along  all  its  borders,  in  Ezekiel  xlvii. 
15-20.  Whatever  meaning  we  may  attach  to  this  passage  in 
its  relation  to  the  future  of  the  land,  it  certainly  conveys  to  us 
the  same  conception  of  its  boundaries  and  extent. 

In  harmony  with  these  statements  is  the  fact  that  the  land,  as 
thus  described,  is  a  unity  in  its  physical  conformation.  It  has 
the  same  characteristic  features,  throughout  its  extent,  from 
north  to  south.  Beyond  these  limits  they  are  not  found. 

While  therefore  we  regard  the  expression  "  from  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba  "  as  a  convenient,  though  not  strictly  accurate,  definition 
of  the  boundaries  of  a  more  permanent  possession,  we  give  our 
adherence  to  the  limits  so  carefully  described  by  the  sacred 
writers  in  studying  the  Land  as  a  whole.  This  is  the  Land 
which  corresponds  with  the  Book  through  all  the  periods  of 
Jewish  history.  To  it  in  its  entirety,  belong  the  glowing  de- 
scriptions, poetic  allusions,  and  characteristic  features,  which 
for  long  ages  have  made  it  preeminent,  as  the  Holy  Land 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Position  among  the  Nations. — The  Land  of  Israel  oc- 
cupies a  unique  position  among  the  nations  of  the  ancient 
world. 

ITS  ISOLATION.-  -It  was  separated  from  the  west  by  the  Medi- 
terranean sea :  from  the  land  of  Egypt  on  the  south  by  the 
great  and  terrible  wilderness  of  Israel's  journeyings :  from  the 
east  by  the  desert  of  Arabia,  and  from  the  north  by  a  rugged 
wall  of  mountains,  which  could  only  be  entered  through  nar- 
row valleys,  or  passage-ways,  easily  defended  against  an  in- 
vading army. 

ITS  CENTRAL  LOCATION. — While  isolated  in  this  remarkable 
manner  from  the  nations,  the  Holy  Land  shared  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  Syria,  the  distinction  of  being  at  the  centre  of 
the  civilization  and  influence  of  the  ancient  world. 


Physical  Features  13 

To  the  inhabitants  of  Babylonia  and  Elam  it  was  the  West- 
land,  toward  which  a  restless  tide  of  immigration  and  adven- 
ture had  been  tending  long  before  the  days  of  Abraham.  To 
the  Egyptians  on  the  south  it  was  the  Midland  region  on  the 
way  to  commerce  or  conquest  amid  the  rich  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

To  the  legions  which  followed  Alexander,  and  the  great 
generals  of  Rome,  it  was  the  "high  bridge,"  as  Ritter  terms 
it,  on  which  they  ascended  and  descended  respectively  into  the 
basin  of  the  Nile  or  of  the  Euphrates.  Dr.  Geo.  Adam  Smith 
has  fittingly  described  it  "  as  a  land  lying  between  two  Conti- 
nents,— Asia  and  Africa ;  between  two  primeval  homes  of  men, 
— the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile ;  between  two  great 
centres  of  empire — Western  Asia  and  Egypt ;  between  all  these, 
representing  the  Eastern  and  ancient  world,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  is  the  gateway  to  the  Western  and  modern 
world."  (Hist.  Geog.,  p.  6.)  While  the  mountain  strongholds 
of  Israel,  especially  in  the  centre  of  the  land,  were  seldom  dis- 
turbed by  invading  hosts,  this  highway  on  its  western  border 
was  the  favorite  route  for  centuries  between  the  three  great 
Continents, — Asia,  Africa  and  Europe. 

This  double  relation  of  exclusion  and  ready  intercommuni- 
cation, paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  was  a  necessary  feature 
in  the  heritage  of  a  people,  who  were  at  one  period  of  their 
history  to  dwell  apart  from  the  nations :  and  at  another  to 
carry  the  message  of  life  and  salvation  to  all  the  people  of  the 
earth. 

It  was  fitting  also  that  the  Book,  which  contained  this  mes- 
sage, should  be  given  in  a  land  which  touched  all  lands. 

Configuration  and  Natural  Divisions. — The  mountains 
of  the  Holy  Land,  as  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show,  extend 
over  the  greater  part  of  its  area.  In  the  language  of  Scripture 
it  is  "a  land  of  hills  and  valleys,  drinking  water  of  the  rain 
of  heaven"  .  .  .  "a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  foun- 
tains and  depths  that  spring  out  of  valleys  and  hills."  (Deut. 


14:  The  Land  of  Israel 

xi.  u,  viii.  y.)1  The  surface  of  the  country  is  naturally  di- 
vided into  four  longitudinal  tracts  or  sections ;  viz :  The  coast 
plain,  the  twin  mountain  ranges,  known  as  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon,  and  the  deeply-cleft  valley  which  lies  between  them. 
In  briefest  outline  the  prominent  physical  features  are  : 

Two  PARALLEL  MOUNTAIN  RANGES  and  Two  CORRESPOND- 
ING DEPRESSIONS, — all  running  north  and  south  throughout  the 
extent  of  the  land.  Each  of  these  sections  contributes  an  in- 
dispensable part  to  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  country,  giv- 
ing to  it  a  universal  character  which  no  other  country  possesses 
within  such  limited  compass  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Their 
general  characteristics  may  be  seen  to  best  advantage  by  ex- 
amining them  in  pairs,  as  indicated  above. 

i.  The  Mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon. — 
The  double  aspect  of  the  broad  mountain  range,  which  extends 
southward  from  Mount  Amanus, — a  spur  of  the  Taurus  range 
— is  not  clearly  defined  until  it  reaches  the  northern  border  of 
Israel's  inheritance.  From  this  point  onward,  however,  the 
two  ranges  run  almost  continuously  side  by  side  to  the  level  of 
the  desert.  In  the  Lebanon  section  there  is  only  one  break  in 
the  continuity  of  the  range.  This  is  caused  by  the  deflection 
of  the  mountains  westward,  affording  a  natural  passage-way 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The  de- 
flected portion  of  the  main  ridge  is  known  as  Mount  Carmel. 
The  broad  valley  which  lies  between  it  and  the  northern  con- 
tinuation of  the  range  was  called,  in  ancient  times,  the  valley 
of  Megiddo.  Its  modern  designation  is  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 
The  high  mountains  of  this  series  are  in  the  portion  which  lies 
north  of  the  latitude  of  Dan.  This  elevated  region  bears  the 
distinctive  name  of  Lebanon.  The  word  is  used  in  this  sense 
throughout  the  Scriptures,  but  in  modern  times  it  is  also  ap- 
plied as  a  general  name  to  the  range  itself.  The  average  height 

1  In  one  sheet  alone  of  the  twenty-six  which  make  up  the  great  Map  oi 
Western  Palestine  there  are  200  fountains. 
See  Thirty  Years'  Work,  P.  E.  F.,  p.  130. 


Physical  Features  15 

of  this  rugged  block  of  towering  mountains  is  7,000  feet.  Its 
extent  north  and  south  is  about  ninety  miles.  The  highest 
peak,  which  dominates  all  the  lofty  elevations  of  the  land,  is 
the  Dhar  el  Khodib.  It  is  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Lebanon  district  and  rises  to  the  height  of  10,052  feet  above  the 
sea.  Next  to  it  in  elevation  is  Jebel  Mukhmal,  overhanging 
the  famous  grove  of  Cedars,  (10,016  feet). 

Mount  Sannin  (Jebel  Sunnin)  northeast  of  Beirut,  is  the 
most  conspicuous  summit  of  this  range,  as  seen  from  the  south. 
Its  elevation  is  8,500  feet,  and  it  is  generally  snow-clad  through- 
out the  year. 

Near  the  head  waters  of  the  Jordan  the  general  elevation  dimin- 
ishes rapidly,  flattening  and  broadening  out  into  the  highlands  of 
Galilee,  which  have  an  average  height  of  only  2,800  feet.  The 
lower  portion  of  this  district  slopes  gradually  toward  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon.  The  division  of  the  central  range  which  lies 
to  the  south  of  this  plain  is  a  continuous,  closely-compacted, 
block  of  rugged  mountain  territory.  It  extends  to  the  vicinity 
of  Beersheba,  a  distance  of  ninety  miles,  and  fills  up  most  of 
the  space  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Jordan.  It  is 
almost  encircled  by  a  lowland  belt,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  pass 
around  from  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea  by  way  of  the  Jordan 
valley,  the  Esdraelon  and  Coast  plains  and  the  lower  levels  of 
the  South  country  to  Engedi — a  short  distance  from  the  start- 
ing-point— without  crossing  an  elevated  ridge  or  climbing  a 
high  hill.  This  long  watershed  has  been  appropriately  likened 
to  a  capsized  flat-bottomed  boat  of  corrugated  iron,  lying  be- 
tween the  Sea  and  the  Jordan ;  one  end  of  which  descends  to 
the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  and  the  other  to  the  Negeb  beyond 
Hebron.  Its  corrugated  sides  are  the  wadies  that  cut  deep 
toward  the  plains  on  either  side.1 

Throughout  its  extent  this  Hill  country  is  an  immense  rock- 
buttressed  stronghold,  whose  gateways  to  the  plains  on  either 

1  Good  Words,  May,  1865,  p.  392. 


16 


The  Land  of  Israel 


hand  are  long  defiles,  or  narrow  passes,  easily  defended  by  a 
small  force  against  the  hosts  of  an  invading  army. 

The  road  which  traverses  the  ridge  from  end  to  end  was  the 
great  highway  of  Israel,  over  which  Patriarchs,  Prophets,  Kings 
and  Pilgrim  bands  travelled  on  their  way  to  and  from  Jerusalem, 
and  the  regions  to  the  south.  It  was  also  the  route  made  sacred 
by  the  footsteps  of  Jesus  when  He  journeyed  from  Judea  to  Gali- 
lee by  way  of  Samaria.  (John  IT.  3,  4.) 

Prominent  Elevations. — The  highest  point  in  this  series 
is  Er  Ramah  just  north  of  Hebron.  It  is  3,546  feet  above  the 
sea.  Next  to  it  is  the  summit  of  Baal  Hazor  (Tell  Azur),  3,318 
feet.  This  is  a  conspicuous  landmark  north  of  Bethel  on  the 
borderline  between  Ephraim  and  Benjamin.  (2  Sam.  xiii.  23.) 

Above  this  dividing  line  the  range  was  known  collectively  as 
Mount  Ephraim  or  the  Mountains  of  Ephraim  :  below  it  as  the 
Mountains  of  Judah.  A  later  designation  of  the  former  was 
the  Mountains  of  Samaria ;  and  of  the  latter  the  Mountains  of 
Judea. 

The  Ras  Sherifeh,  south  of  Bethlehem  (3,260) ;  Mount  Ebal, 
near  Shechem  (3,076) ;  and  Neby  Samwil,  northwest  of  Jeru- 
salem (2,935)  are  next  to  Baal  Hazor  in  order  of  elevation. 

The  general  average  of  the  plateau  on  which  Jerusalem 
stands  is  2,500  feet  above  the  sea.  From  Hebron  there  is 
a  gradual  descent  by  steps  or  terraced  slopes  to  the  Negeb. 
The  mountains  of  Sinai,  250  miles  south  of  Beersheba,  are 
regarded  as  the  outliers  of  the  Lebanon  range.  They  rise 
abruptly  in  a  closely  compacted  group  from  the  desert  level 
to  a  height  corresponding  very  closely  to  the  average  eleva- 
tion of  the  Lebanon  district  (7,000  feet).  The  highest  peak 
in  the  group  is  over  9,000  feet,  or  about  the  elevation  of  Mount 
Hermon. 

The  general  direction  of  the  numerous  ravines,  or  wadies,  as 
they  are  generally  termed,  which  diversify,  and  in  some  sec- 
tions deeply  corrugate,  this  range,  is  from  east  to  west.  On  the 
eastern  side  they  are  short,  direct,  and  deeply  cleft :  on  the 


Physical  Features  17 

western  they  are  comparatively  long  and  shallow,  and  reach 
the  plain  by  circuitous  routes. 

The  Eastern  or  Anti-Lebanon  range  culminates  in  the 
snow-covered  heights  of  Mount  Hermon,  9,383  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  range  as  a  whole  presents  a  broader  surface  on  its 
summit.  It  is  not  a  backbone  ridge,  like  the  western  section, 
but  slopes  gradually  to  the  eastern  desert,  except  in  the  region 
of  its  highest  elevation  north  of  Hermon.  South  of  the  Leb- 
anon district  its  summit  expands  into  an  elevated  plateau  noted 
for  its  rich  pasturage,  and  surpassingly  beautiful  stretches  of 
fertile  territory.  The  upper  portion  is  the  country  of  Bashan  ; 
the  middle,  of  Gilead,  and  the  southern  of  Moab.  The  gen- 
eral elevation  of  Bashan  and  Gilead  is  2,000  feet.  The  plateau 
of  Moab  is  something  more  than  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

In  this  range  there  is  no  distinct  break,  or  passage-way  from 
east  to  west,  as  in  the  Lebanon  section.  As  seen  from  the  in- 
tervening depression,  it  is  an  unbroken  wall,  except  where  the 
numerous  wadies  and  an  occasional  tributary  of  the  Jordan, 
have  cut  their  way  down  its  face.  The  southern  extremity  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  range  is  the  traditional  Mount  Hor,  an  iso- 
lated cone-shaped  peak  near  Petra  in  the  land  of  Edom.  It  is 
about  250  miles  from  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon. 

2.  The  Lowland  Sections. — The  longitudinal  sections 
on  either  side  of  the  Lebanon  mountains  are  alike  only  in 
length  and  general  direction.  The  one  is  a  coast  plain,  the 
other  a  deep  fissure,  or  mountain  valley,  which  descends  to  a 
level  far  below  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

(i)  The  Maritime  Plain. — The  coast  line,  which 
bounds  the  Maritime  plain  on  the  west,  is  remarkable  for  its 
straight,  almost  unbroken  sweep.  It  has  no  deep  estuaries  or 
gulfs  and  there  is  but  one  strongly  marked  indentation  along 
its  entire  length.  This  is  at  Haifa,  where  the  rocky  promontory 
of  Carmel  juts  out  into  the  sea.  Aside  from  this,  at  best  a 
shallow  and  unsatisfactory  roadstead,  there  are  no  natural  har- 


18  The  Land  of  Israel 

bors  along  the  line  of  this  coast.  At  times  artificial  harbors 
or  extensions  have  been  made  at  Askalon,  Jaffa,  Caesarea  and 
Beirut ;  but  strictly  speaking,  it  is  with  the  single  exception 
mentioned,  a  harborless  coast.  Because  of  this  the  sea  which 
for  centuries  has  surged  against  it,  has  been  a  barrier  rather 
than  a  highway. 

The  promontory  of  Mount  Carmel  breaks  the  continuity  of 
the  Maritime  plain,  separating  it  into  two  parts  very  nearly 
equal  in  extent.  The  upper  portion  is  a  narrow  strip  about 
140  miles  long,  varying  from  two  to  twelve  miles  in 
breadth.  It  is  a  well-watered  region  remarkable  for  its  fer- 
tility :  and  in  former  times  was  cultivated  with  great  care.  It 
is  broken  into  two  parts  by  the  "ladder  of  Tyre,"  a  rocky 
ridge  which  projects  into  the  sea  about  twenty-five  miles  beyond 
Mount  Carmel.  The  section  below  the  ladder  of  Tyre  is 
usually  designated  as  the  Plain  of  Acre.  The  long  strip  above  it 
is  the  famous  Phoenician  plain.  The  portion  south  of  the  Lit- 
any is  sometimes  designated  as  the  Phoenician  plain,  but  the 
appellation  properly  belongs  to  the  lowland  which  borders  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Lebanon  district,  or,  in  other  words,  from 
Tripoli  to  the  ladder  of  Tyre. 

Below  Mount  Carmel  the  plain  contracts  into  narrow  limits 
for  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles.  Beyond  this  point  to  the  Wady 
el-Arish,  or  river  of  Egypt,  the  coast  line  inclines  slightly 
toward  the  west,  leaving  a  broad,  undulating  stretch  of  low- 
land, famous  for  its  beauty  and  fertility,  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea. 

The  northern  portion  is  known  as  the  Plain  of  Sharon :  the 
southern  as  the  Plain  of  Philistia.  The  range  of  low  hills, 
which  lie  between  the  plain  of  Philistia  and  the  mountains  is 
properly  termed  the  Shephelah.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  in  Scripture  the  name  is  sometimes  used  in  a  wider  sense, 
to  include  the  whole  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  plain.  (Josh. 
xv.  33-40;  also  x.  40-41.) 

(2)   The  Depressed  Region  Between  the  Mountains.^ 


Physical  Features  19 

The  valley  between  the  two  great  mountain  ridges  has  been  fitly 
characterized  as  a  phenomenon  unique  on  the  earth's  surface. 
Nowhere  on  its  wrinkled  face  do  we  find  a  furrow  so  deep,  or 
so  remarkable  for  its  length,  directness  and  rapid  descent.  In 
length  it  stretches  from  Antioch  to  the  Red  Sea,  a  distance  of 
350  miles.  Its  general  course  is  almost  due  south.  Between 
the  Lebanons  it  is  a  deep  basin,  eighty  miles  long  and  four  to 
nine  wide,  rimmed  in  by  mountain  walls  5,000  or  6,000  feet 
high.  This  is  the  famous  Ccele-Syria  (Hollow  Syria)  region 
of  ancient  history.  In  the  southern  portion  the  valley  sinks 
from  sea  level  to  a  depression  1,300  feet  below,  in  a  distance 
of  less  than  100  miles.  If  we  add  to  this  the  lower  level  of  the 
Dead  Sea  basin  the  depression  is  2,600  feet,  or  nearly  one-half 
of  a  mile  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Putting  it  in  another  form,  "  a  man  who  stands  at  the  margin 
of  the  Dead  Sea  is  almost  as  far  below  the  Ocean  surface  as  the 
miner  in  the  lowest  depth  of  any  mine." 

In  describing  the  lower  portion  of  this  great  cleft,  Dr.  Smith 
says: 

"  There  may  be  something  on  the  surface  of  another  planet  to  match  the 
Jordan  valley  :  there  is  nothing  on  this.  No  other  part  of  our  earth,  un- 
covered by  water,  sinks  to  300  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  .  .  . 
In  this  trench  there  are  the  Jordan,  a  river  nearly  loo  miles  long ;  two 
great  lakes,  respectively  twelve  and  fifty-three  miles  in  length ;  large  tracts 
of  arable  country,  especially  about  Gennesaret,  Bethshan,  and  Jericho,  re- 
gions which  were  once  very  populous,  like  the  coasts  of  the  lake  of  Gali- 
lee ;  and  the  sites  of  some  famous  towns — Tiberias,  Jericho,  and  the  cities 
of  the  Plain.  Is  it  not  true  that  on  the  earth  there  is  nothing  else  like 
this  deep,  this  colossal  ditch  ?  "  » 

Three  of  the  great  rivers  of  Syria  flow  through  this  longitu- 
dinal cleft  in  different  sections  of  its  course.  The  first,  and 
most  noted  is  the  Jordan,  which  traverses  its  lower  level  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  second  is  the  Litany,  or  Kasimiyeh.  This 
river  drains  the  southern  portion  of  the  Coele-Syria  basin.  It 
1  Smith  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  468. 


20 


The  Land  of  Israel 


rises  near  Baalbek  and  flows  southward  to  a  point  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Jordan,  where  it  turns  sharply  to  the  west 
and  passes  through  a  deep  gorge  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

The  third  is  the  Orontes,  the  largest  and  longest  river  of 
Syria..  It  rises  on  a  watershed,  near  the  source  of  the  Litany, 
and  flows  due  north  through  the  great  plain  within  and  beyond 
the  Lebanons,  for  a  distance  of  about  130  miles.  Then,  like 
the  Litany,  it  turns  sharply  to  the  west  and  pours  its  flood  of 
waters  into  the  sea. 

These  are  some  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  land, 
viewed  as  a  whole.  Within  its  limits  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
conceive  of  any  variation,  or  peculiarity  of  land  formation,  that 
is  not  represented.  Here  may  be  found  in  close  juxtaposition, 
sea  and  desert ;  alpine  heights  and  phenomenal  depths ;  fertile 
plains  and  barren  wilderness ;  rolling  downs  and  upland  pas- 
tures ;  terraced  slopes  and  deeply-scarred  lava  beds ;  park-like 
stretches  and  bleakest  moorlands ;  valleys  of  Edenic  beauty  and 
dark  canons  suggestive  of  the  shadow  of  death;  rivers  and 
lakes ;  snow-clad  heights  and  depths  of  tropical  heat  and  lux- 
uriance; ice-bound  streams  and  steaming  fountains;  shady 
glens  and  interminable  wadies ;  open  glades  and  impenetrable 
jungles  of  cane  and  papyrus — in  short  every  feature  of  nature's 
diversified  handiwork,  which  is  suggestive  of  the  beautiful,  the 
picturesque  or  the  sublime. 

Geological  Structure. — The  predominating  element  in  the 
structure  of  the  country  throughout  its  length  and  breadth  is 
limestone.  In  some  sections  of  the  mountain  system  it  appears 
as  a  very  hard,  flinty  formation :  in  others  it  is  soft,  porous, 
chalky,  and  lends  itself  easily  to  the  agencies,  both  natural  and 
artificial,  which  have  made  it  preeminently  a  land  of  grottoes 
and  caverns.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  region  of  the  Shep- 
helah  and  the  hill  country  of  Judea. 

In  the  lower  strata  of  the  mountains  there  are  occasional  out- 
croppings  of  an  underlying  bed  of  red  sandstone,  especially  on 
the  western  side  of  the  ridge  of  Lebanon. 


Physical  Features  21 

Next  to  the  limestone  the  most  conspicuous  surface  forma- 
tion is  volcanic.  It  is  found  in  dark  colossal  masses  of  corru- 
gated lava  or  hard  basaltic  and  greenstone  rock,  on  the  plateau 
of  Bashan  and  Moab,  and  in  some  portions  of  the  Jordan 
valley. 

In  the  Negeb,  and  on  the  desert  beyond,  the  primitive  rocks 
(granite  and  gneiss)  make  their  appearance  in  places.  Farther 
south  these  form  the  basis  of  the  Sinaitic  group. 

The  alluvial  deposits  in  the  valleys  and  plains  are  notably 
rich  in  the  elements  which  contribute  to  fertility  of  soil.  Some 
of  them  have  been  cultivated  continuously  for  centuries  without 
any  addition  of  fertilizers  except  such  as  nature  has  supplied. 


CHAPTER  H 

NATURAL  HISTORY 

I.  CLIMATE  and  Productions. — In  Scripture  allusions 
the  climatic  changes  of  the  year  are  grouped  under  two  divisions 
only, — summer  and  winter.  The  one  is  usually  designated  as 
the  "dry  season,"  the  other  as  the  "season  of  rain."  The 
period  of  rainfall  begins  near  the  close  of  October,  and  usually 
ends  in  March  and  April.  In  the  intervening  months  the  sky 
is  cloudless  and  there  is  no  rainfall  in  any  portion  of  the  land. 

As  Dr.  Robinson  puts  it,  the  winter  period  "is  marked  by 
much  rain:  the  summer  by  none  at  att."  We  must  guard 
against  the  impression,  however,  which  some  have  received 
from  the  terms  used,  that  the  wet  season  is  a  period  of  continu- 
ous rain. 

On  the  contrary  the  intervals  of  sunshine  are  actually  longer 
in  this  period  than  the.  days  of  rain.  The  rainy  days  usually 
come  in  groups,  especially  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
season.  In  these  intervals  of  "clear  shining"  the  husband- 
men have  ample  time  to  sow  the  seed  and  cultivate  the  growing 
crops.  The  plentiful  showers  which  come  at  the  beginning  of 
the  season  prepare  the  hard,  dry  soil  for  the  plowman  and  the 
sower.  This  is  the  time  of  the  "former  rain."  "The  latter 
rain,"  coming  at  the  close  of  the  winter  period,  is  essential  to 
the  inbringing  of  the  springtime  and  the  ultimate  maturing  of 
the  harvests.  If  either  are  withheld  in  their  season  the  supply 
of  food  for  man  and  beast  is  cut  short.  .  .  .  The  rapid 
transformation  of  the  land,  in  connection  with,  and  immedi- 
ately following  the  latter  rains  is  marvellous.  Freshness  and 
verdure  take  the  place  of  desert-like  fields  and  hillsides ;  in- 
numerable flowers  open  out  their  delicately  tinted  petals  to 

22 


Natural  History  .    23 

the  warm  sunlight ;  the  fig  tree  putteth  forth  her  green  leaves 
and  the  vines  with  the  tender  grape  give  a  pleasant  smell. 
Then  come  the  days  of  which  the  Sacred  poets  sing  when  the 
little  hills  rejoice  on  every  side ;  "  the  pastures  are  clothed  with 
flocks :  the  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn ;  they  shout 
for  joy,  they  also  sing."  (Ps.  Ixv.  13.) 

In  this  climate  all  the  cereal  and  leguminous  plants,  com- 
monly used  for  food,  whether  native  or  imported,  grow  readily 
and  yield  bountiful  harvests.  Dr.  Post  of  Beirut  claims  that 
no  other  country  in  the  world  yields  so  large  a  number  of  food 
products  as  Palestine. 

The  harvest  period  varies  greatly  in  the  different  locali- 
ties of  the  land.  In  the  depressed  sections  the  barley  ripens 
in  April  and  the  wheat  in  the  latter  part  of  May.  In  the  ele- 
vated region  the  wheat  is  harvested  in  the  month  of  June. 

Between  the  time  of  the  wheat  harvest  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  and  on  the  plateau  of  Jerusalem  is  an  interval  of  about 
four  weeks,  and  yet  the  points  are  hardly  twenty  miles  apart. 
The  olive,  the  fig,  and  the  vine  yield  a  later  harvest,  and  ap- 
pear to  be  equally  at  home  in  all  portions  of  the  land. 

In  former  times  all  the  hills  were  terraced  and  the  rich  soil 
from  the  valleys  was  carried  up  to  nourish  the  vineyards  and 
olive  yards,  which  were  planted  on  these  sunny  slopes. 

The  Variations  in  Climate  of  the  several  sections  of  the 
country  correspond  with  the  variations,  already  noted,  in  its 
physical  features. 

The  sea,  the  desert,  and  the  extraordinary  range  of  levels 
are  the  most  potent  influences  in  effecting  these  variations, 
which  range  from  alpine  cold  to  torrid  heat.  From  the  sum- 
mits of  Lebanon  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  Jordan  valley,  all 
the  zones  and  climes  of  the  earth,  with  the  forms  and  varieties 
of  plant  and  animal  life  peculiar  to  each,  are  represented.  As 
the  Arabs  have  happily  expressed  it,  "  Lebanon  bears  winter 
on  its  head,  spring  on  its  shoulders,  and  autumn  in  its  lap, 
while  summer  lies  at  its  feet."  In  a  single  day's  ride  Canon 


24:  .  The  Land  of  Israel 

Tristram  passed  through  four  different  zones  from  the  region  of 
the  Scotch  fir  on  the  top  of  Mount  Gilead  to  the  region  of  the 
date  palm  in  the  plains  of  the  Jordan.  From  the  snow  fields 
of  Hermon  to  this  lower  level  is  less  than  100  miles;  and 
yet  in  the  one  perpetual  winter  abides:  in  the  other  there 
is  never  a  trace  of  snow  or  hoar  frost  the  year  round. 

11  All  the  intermediate  steps  between  these  extremes,"  says  Dr.  Smith, 
"  the  eye  can  see  at  one  sweep  from  Carmel — the  sands  and  palms  of  the 
coast — the  wheat  fields  of  Esdraelon ;  the  oaks  and  sycamores  of  Galilee  ; 
the  pines,  the  peaks,  the  snows  of  Anti-Lebanon.  How  closely  these 
differences  lie  to  each  other!  Take  a  section  of  the  country  across 
Judea.  With  its  palms  and  shadoofs  the  Philistine  plain  might  be  a 
part  of  the  Egyptian  Delta ;  but  on  the  hills  of  the  Shephelah  which 
overlook  it,  you  are  in  the  scenery  of  Southern  Europe  :  the  Judean  moors 
which  overlook  them  are  like  the  barer  uplands  of  Central  Germany ;  the 
shepherds  wear  sheepskin  cloaks  and  live  under  stone  roofs — sometimes 
the  snow  lies  deep ;  a  few  miles  further  east  and  you  are  down  in  the 
desert  among  the  Bedouin,  with  their  tents  of  hair  and  their  cotton 
clothing ;  a  few  miles  farther  still  and  you  drop  down  to  torrid  heat  in 
the  Jordan  valley ;  a  few  miles  beyond  that  and  you  rise  to  the  plateau  of 
the  Belka,  where  the  Arabs  say  the  cold  is  always  at  home.  Yet  from 
Philistia  to  the  Belka  is  scarcely  seventy  miles." l 

(2)  Flora  and  Fauna. — Canon  Tristram,  whose  name 
stands  first  among  the  recognized  authorities  on  the  Natural 
History  of  Palestine,  describes  the  flora  and  fauna  of  four  dis- 
tinct zones  in  which  affinities  are  traced  with  many  genera  and 
species  of  world-wide  distribution.  "There  are  the  fauna 
and  flora,  first  of  all  on  the  coast  and  highlands,  that  are  the 
most  familiar  and  the  most  recent.  Then  there  is  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  desert,  taking  southern  Judea  and  the  east  side  of 
the  Jordan ;  then  there  is  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  Jordan 
valley ;  and  fourthly  just  a  remnant  left  of  the  Alpine  flora  and 
fauna  on  the  top  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon."  In  the  same  con- 
nection he  states  the  fact  that  out  of  a  collection  of  1 60  plants, 
taken  from  a  little  valley  on  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Dead 

1  Historical  Geography,  p.  56. 


Natural  History  25 

Sea  basin,  135  were  exclusively  African.  For  the  most  part 
their  kind  are  only  to  be  found  in  Nubia  or  equatorial  Africa. 
In  Egypt  the  Papyrus  has  long  been  extinct;  but  at  Lake 
Huleh,  on  the  upper  Jordan  valley,  a  dense  mass  of  it  seven 
miles  in  extent  may  still  be  seen.  Affinities  as  clearly  marked 
have  been  traced  between  the  fish  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
fish  found  in  the  Zambezi,  and  in  the  Lakes  Nyanza  and  Tan- 
ganyika at  the  head  waters  of  the  Nile :  also  between  the  birds 
and  wild  animals  of  the  Lebanon  and  kindred  species,  found 
on  the  Appenines,  the  Alps  and  the  Himalayas. 

The  Flora  of  Solomon,  which  included  in  its  range  all 
the  plants  of  his  day,  from  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  even  to  the 
hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall,  has  been  studied  anew 
in  the  light  of  modern  attainments ;  and  within  the  limits  of 
this  restricted  Syrian  territory,  with  that  of  Sinai,  126  Orders, 
850  Genera  and  3,416  Species  have  been  catalogued  and  de- 
scribed. 

The  Trees  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  with  scarce 
an  exception,  are  still  to  be  found  in  some  portion  of  the 
country.  Among  these  may  be  named  the  lofty  Cedars  of 
Lebanon,  the  Oaks  of  Bashan  and  Gilead — with  other  Oaks  of 
different  species  and  localities — the  Fir,  Cypress,  Terebinth, 
Olive,  Fig,  Almond,  Mulberry,  Myrtle,  Citron,  Acacia  (Shittim 
wood),  Pomegranate,  Prickly  pear,  Tamarisk,  Oleander,  Apri- 
cot, Orange,  Lime  and  Palm. 

Most  noteworthy  among  the  wild  animals  that  still  remain, 
are  the  Roebuck  or  Gazelle  (several  species),  Fallow  Deer, 
wild  Goat,  wild  Cat,  Fox,  Jackal,  Wolf,  Hyena,  Lynx,  Leopard, 
Otter,  Badger,  Coney,  Hare,  Buffalo,  brown  Bear,  and  wild 
Boar.  Some  of  the  above  are  rare,  but  have  occasionally  been 
seen.  The  Auroch,  translated  Unicorn,  in  our  version,  and 
the  Lion  have  become  extinct ;  but  their  bones  have  been 
found  in  the  caves  of  Lebanon  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 
The  feat  of  Benaiah,  who  went  down  and  slew  a  lion  in  the 
midst  of  a  pit,  or  cistern,  in  the  time  of  snow  is  referred  to  by 


26  The  Land  of  Israel 

Dr.  Smith  as  an  illustration  of  the  remarkable  variation  of 
climate  within  distances  but  a  few  miles  apart.  To  this  he 
adds  the  statement,  "The  beast  had  strayed  up  the  Judean 
hills  from  Jordan  and  had  been  caught  in  a  sudden  snow- 
storm. Where  else  than  in  Palestine  could  lions  and  snow 
thus  come  together  ?  "  * 

With  respect  to  the  Auroch  or  Bison  (Unicorn)  it  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  the  equivalent  of  the  original  word  Re' em  has 
been  found  on  Assyrian  sculpture  written  over  a  wild  Ox.  This 
settles  the  question  as  to  the  dual  number  of  its  horns  in  a  very 
summary  manner. 

"  This  animal,"  says  Tristram,  "  is  alluded  to  in  the  earlier  books  of  the 
Bible,  but  not  after  the  time  of  David.  Except  in  one  poetical  passage  the 
word  Re'em  never  occurs  again.  Coincidentally  with  this,  in  the  tablets 
in  Nineveh  describing  the  hunting  feats  of  the  kings  of  the  earlier  dy- 
nasty, the  grand  game  that  the  king  hunted  was  the  Aurochs,  the  Re'em, 
but  in  the  later  Assyrian  Empire,  from  just  about  the  time  of  David,  from 
about  looo  B.  C.,  we  do  not  find  in  any  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  tablet  or 
sculpture  a  single  trace  of  the  Re'em,  or  wild  Ox.  Population  had  in- 
creased and  it  had  become  extinct."  9 

These  with  other  interesting  facts  may  be  found  in  fuller 
statement  in  Tristram's  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Palestine,  published 
by  the  Exploration  Fund,  Tristram's  Natural  History  of  the 
Bible,  Conder's  Hand  Book  to  the  Bible,  and  the  Appendices 
to  recent  issues  of  the  Oxford  and  Teachers'  Bibles. 

A  complete  Flora  of  the  Holy  Land  and  Sinai  excepting  the  lower 
forms  of  cryptogams  has  recently  been  issued  by  the  Mission  Press  at 
Beirut,  Syria.  The  author,  the  Rev.  G.  E.  Post,  M.  D.,  D.  D.,  has  long 
been  a  resident  of  Syria,  and  aside  from  his  eminent  qualifications,  has  en- 
joyed exceptional  opportunities  for  the  prosecution  of  this  study.  It  is  a 
standard  work  of  its  class  and  is  recommended  as  an  invaluable  aid  to 
those  whu  wish  to  study  the  plant  life  of  the  Holy  Land. 

For  fuller  information  on  the  "  Geology  of  Palestine  "  the  student  is  re- 

i  The  City  and  the  Land,  p.  64. 

9  The  City  and  the  Land,  p.  75.,  P.  E.  F. 


Natural  History  27 

ferred  to  Professor  Hull's  recent  work,  published  by  the  Exploration  Fund ; 
also  to  Dr.  Robinson's  Physical  Geography,  pages  311  and  372.  A  very 
satisfactory  article  on  the  "  Climate  "  may  be  found  in  the  same  volume,  page 
288.  Fuller  and  later  information  is  given  in  the  Quarterly  Statements  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 


CHAPTER  III 

EARLY  INHABITANTS   OF  THE   LAND 

IN  the  Old  Testament  the  mixed  population,  which  occupied 
the  country  before  the  period  of  the  conquest,  is  generally 
classified  under  six  or  seven  distinct  tribal  names.  In  three 
passages  (Deut.  vii.  i ;  Josh.  xxiv.  u,  and  iii.  10)  seven  tribes 
or  nations  are  mentioned  by  name.  In  nine  passages  a  list  of 
six  of  the  names,  on  the  above  mentioned  list  are  given.  These 
are  the  Canaanites,  Hittites,  Amorites,  Hivites,  Perizzites,  and 
Jebusites.  (Ex.  iii.  8,  17,  xxxiii.  2,  xxxiv.  n  ;  Deut.  xx.  17; 
Josh.  ix.  i,  xi.  3,  xii.  8;  Judges  iii.  5.)  In  these  lists  the 
Gergashite  tribe  is  uniformly  omitted.  Of  its  location  and 
characteristics  we  have  no  definite  information. 

Recent  research  has  thrown  some  additional  light  upon  the 
history  of  the  six  nations — mentioned  in  all  the  lists — and  their 
position  in  general  has  been  definitely  located. 

z.  The  Canaanites. — The  name  when  used  in  its  narrower 
sense  was  descriptive  of  the  people  who  dwelt  by  the  sea  and 
by  the  coast  of  Jordan.  (Gen.  x.  19;  Num.  xiii.  29;  Josh, 
xi.  3.) 

(i)  THE  PHILISTINES,  who  occupied  the  southern  part  of  the 
lowland  region  of  Palestine  came  originally  from  Caphtor,  or 
greater  Phoenicia,  in  lower  Egypt.  Professor  Sayce  makes  the 
assertion,  based  upon  careful  study  of  the  Egyptian  monuments, 
that  some  of  them  were  planted  on  the  southern  frontier  of 
Palestine  by  the  Egyptians  after  their  conquest  of  Canaan,  in 
order  to  garrison  the  newly  acquired  territory.  In  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  (ii.  23)  we  are  told  that  they  conquered  the 
Avims  and  dwelt  in  their  land.  In  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs 
they  appear  as  a  pastoral  people  occupying  the  country  west  of 


Early  Inhabitants  of  the  Land  29 

Beersheba  and  Kadesh,  known  as  the  kingdom  of  Gerar.  At  a 
later  period  they  held  possession  of  the  coastland  from  the  Wady 
el-Arish  to  the  border  of  the  plain  of  Sharon  and  had  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  powerful  and  warlike  nation.  For  cen- 
turies they  were  the  most  formidable  and  aggressive  foes  of  the 
Hebrew  nation.  Their  chief  cities  were  Gath,  Ashkelon,  Ash- 
dod,  Gaza  and  Ekron,  on  the  Philistine  plain.  The  name 
Palestine,  which  was  originally  the  Greek  equivalent  for  the 
land  of  the  Philistines,  was  afterward  used  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  to  cover  the  whole  country  of  Israel  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan.  In  this  sense  also  we  use  the  word  at  the 
present  time. 

(2)  THE  PHOENICIANS,  who  occupied  the  lowland  region 
north  of  Mount  Carmel,  were  the  original  Canaanite  population 
of  the  country.  The  exact  date  of  their  arrival  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  is  not  known,  but  as  early  as  the  period 
of  Hyksos  rule  in  Egypt  they  had  established  a  flourishing 
colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  and  were  then  known  as  the 
traders,  or  middle-men  of  the  commercial  world.  Their  oldest 
city  Sidon  still  bears  the  name  of  the  firstborn  of  Canaan.  In 
the  Scriptures  they  are  sometimes  designated  as  Zidonians. 
There  is  a  variety  of  evidence  from  reliable  sources  in  con- 
firmation of  their  own  assertion,  that  they  came  originally  from 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  "  The  greater  number  of 
modern  critics,"  says  Renan,  "admit  as  demonstrated  that  the 
primitive  abode  of  the  Phoenicians  must  be  placed  on  the 
lower  Euphrates,  in  the  centre  of  the  great  commercial  and 
maritime  establishments  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  conformably  to 
the  unanimous  witness  of  antiquity."  Throughout  the  Bible 
it  is  assumed  that  the  language  of  the  Canaanites  was  identical 
with  the  language  of  the  Hebrews,  and  this  may  readily  be  ac- 
counted for  on  the  ground  that  originally  the  progenitors  of 
both  nationalities  came  from  the  same  location  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  While  the  Canaanites  were  the  descendants  of  Ham 
they  had,  through  early  and  close  associations  with  the  Semites 


30  The  Land  of  Israel 

of  this  region,  many  of  their  characteristics  and  spoke  a  lan- 
guage which  was  practically  the  same.  "The  numerous  in- 
scriptions on  tombs,  tablets,  etc.,  amounting  in  all  to  several 
hundreds  established  the  fact  that  this  language  (the  Phoeni- 
cian) is  almost  as  closely  allied  to  the  Hebrew  as  German  to  Dutch 
or  Portuguese  to  Spanish." l  It  was  in  Egypt  but  not  in  the  land 
of  Canaan  that  "  Israel  heard  a  language  which  he  understood 
not."  2  The  name  Canaan  was  originally  applied  only  to  the 
land  of  Phoenicia,  but  afterward  it  was  given  to  the  whole  of 
Western  Palestine.  In  this  respect  its  history  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  term  Palestine.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Biblical  ap- 
pellations of  the  Promised  Land,  and  is  found  on  Phoenician 
coins,  and  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  as  well  as 
in  the  Bible. 

"  There  was  no  wider  designation,  says  Prof.  McCurdy,  for 
the  whole  country  than  Canaan  :  and  after  the  Hebrews  occu- 
pied it  the  name  Israel  took  its  place,  though  not  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  old  appellation."  The  common  designation  of 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  in  early  times  was  "  Gilead  "  or 
the  "Land  of  Gilead." 

The  Phoenicians  were  the  traders  of  the  commercial  world 
for  almost  a  thousand  years.  Before  the  days  of  Homer  they 
had  become  famous  for  their  skill  in  artistic  and  ornamental 
handiwork,  and  with  good  reason  were  chosen  by  Solomon  to 
execute  the  difficult  and  painstaking  designs  which  David  had 
planned  under  Divine  guidance  for  the  erection  and  ornamenta- 

1  Rawlinson. 

8  " « The  language  of  Canaan '  as  Isaiah  (xix.  18)  calls  it,  was  what  we 
term  Hebrew.  The  fact  was  first  made  clear  by  the  Phoenician  inscrip- 
tions ;  the  cuneiform  tablets  found  at  Tell  el-Amarna  in  Upper  Egypt  have 
carried  back  the  history  of  the  language  to  Pre-Mosaic  days.  A  large 
part  of  the  tablets  consists  of  letters  in  the  Babylonian  language  from  the 
Egyptian  governors  and  vassal  kings  of  Canaan,  and  in  some  of  them  the 
Canaanitish  Equivalents  are  given  of  Babylonian  words.  In  all  such 
cases  we  might  substitute  Hebrew  for  Canaanitish."  (Professor  Sayce 
in  Homiletical  Review,  March,  1897,  p.  202.) 


Early  Inhabitants  of  the  Land  31 

tion  of  the  Temple.  In  shipbuilding  and  navigation,  also,  they 
excelled  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  crowning  honor  at- 
tributed to  the  Phoenicians  was  the  invention  of  the  alphabet. 
Recent  research  has  shorn  this  tradition  of  a  part  of  its  sig- 
nificance, and  points  to  an  earlier  system  from  which  the  Phoe- 
nician alphabet  was  derived,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  sys- 
tem which  they  introduced  is  the  mother  of  our  modern  alpha- 
bets. "Phoenicia,"  says  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  "is  rather  to 
be  praised  for  curtailing  the  excessive  redundance  of  the  primi- 
tive methods  of  expressing  speech  in  a  written  form  than  for  any 
actual  invention  or  discovery."  From  whatever  source  derived 
it  is  now  certain  that  a  uniform  alphabetical  system,  with  slight 
modifications  was  used  by  the  Phoenicians,  the  Jews,  the  Sa- 
maritans, and  the  Moabites  at  an  early  date.  In  its  degenerate 
form  the  Phoenician  religion  was  the  most  sensual,  debasing 
and  cruel  in  character  and  worship,  of  all  the  religions  of  the 
East.  Baal  and  Ashtaroth,  the  synonyms  for  long  ages  of  cru- 
elty and  impurity,  were  the  principal  deities,  and  the  influence 
of  their  worship  was  degrading  and  demoralizing  in  the  ex- 
treme. 

With  respect  to  location  the  Phoenicians  were  sometimes  sep- 
arately designated  as  Zidonians,  Giblites,  Arkites  and  Ham- 
athites. 

THE  CANAANITES  OF  THE  JORDAN  VALLEY  dwelt  in  five  cities 
of  "the  plain  "  or  " circle "  of  the  Jordan.  This,  in  connection 
with  other  descriptions,  makes  it  certain  that  the  district  in 
which  these  cities  were  located  was  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  was  noted  for  its  tropical  luxuriance,  suggestive 
of  the  land  of  Egypt  or  the  primeval  garden  of  the  Lord ;  but 
its  inhabitants  were  so  grossly  immoral  and  depraved  that  they 
were  destroyed  in  the  midst  of  their  possessions,  by  a  swift 
judgment  of  the  Almighty,  during  the  period  of  Abraham's 
sojourn  in  the  land. 

2.  The  Hittites. — This  nation,  which  t.~»ok  its  name  from 
Heth  the  second  son  of  Canaan,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 


32  The  Land  of  Israel 

Bible  in  connection  with  the  Amorites.  They  were  concentrated 
principally  in  Syria,  but  their  settlements  extended  as  far  south- 
ward as  Hebron.  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  and  Kadesh 
on  the  Orontes  were  the  chief  cities,  or  garrison  towns,  of  the 
Hittites.  Their  geographical  position  in  general  was  indicated, 
in  the  time  of  Joshua  as  being  "  From  the  wilderness  and  this 
Lebanon,  even  unto  the  great  river  the  Euphrates,  all  the  land 
of  the  Hittites."  (Josh  i.  4.) 

A  parallel  statement  from  an  inscription  of  Tiglath  Pileser  I. 
reads,  "  From  the  border  of  the  distant  mountains  to  the  fords 
of  the  Euphrates,  the  land  of  the  Hittites  and  the  upper  sea  of 
the  setting  sun."  This  powerful  nation  of  the  north  began  to 
extend  its  conquests  southward  a  short  while  before  the  birth 
of  Abraham,  and  before  the  period  of  the  conquest  it  was  rec- 
ognized as  the  dominant  nation  of  Syria.  So  far  from  being  a 
petty  tribe  among  the  scattered  tribes  of  Syria,  as  some  have 
asserted  the  fact  has  been  established  beyond  controversy,  from 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  annals,  as  well  as  from  the  Scriptures, 
that  the  Hittites  were  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the  East. 
For  centuries  they  and  their  allies  held  their  ground  in  the 
northern  part  of  Syria  against  the  might  of  Egypt,  Babylonia 
and  Assyria :  and  from  the  days  of  Abraham  until  the  end  of 
the  northern  kingdom  they  were  the  most  active  and  aggressive 
of  the  nations  which  came  into  close  contact  with  Israel.  Their 
chief  cities  were  destroyed  and  their  power  and  influence  finally 
broken  717  years  before  the  Christian  era  by  Sargon  the  suc- 
cessor of  Shalmaneser.  So  complete  was  this  overthrow  that 
their  very  name  was  dropped  from  the  records  of  history,  until 
the  revelations  of  recent  times  restored  it  to  its  old  time  place 
and  prestige.  The  Scripture  references  to  the  Hittites  as  occu- 
pants of  the  mountain  strongholds  of  the  land  of  Canaan  are 
numerous  from  the  days  of  Abraham  and  onward,  especially 
in  the  periods  connected  with  the  history  of  Moses  and  Joshua. 
In  the  report  of  the  spies  it  is  distinctly  stated  that  "  the  Hit- 
tites, and  the  Jebusites  and  the  Amorites  dwell  in  the  moun- 


Early  Inhabitants  of  the  Land  33 

tains."  (Num.  xiii.  29.)  In  the  commission  given  to  Moses 
(Ex.  iii.  1 8)  the  promise  made  to  the  Patriarchs  was  renewed 
to  bring  their  children  "unto  the  place  of  the  Canaanites  and 
the  Hittites  and  the  Amorites  and  the  Perizzites,  and  the 
Hivites  and  the  Jebusites." 

This  narrative,  says  Dr.  Wright,  stands  in  topographical 
order  as  viewed  from  the  Egyptian  standpoint.  The  traveller 
northward  first  reached  Canaan,  next  the  Hittite  colony  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hebron,  and  lastly  the  Jebusites  who  dwelt  in 
Jerusalem. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  Hittites  were  a  literary 
people  and  had  a  written  language,  but  no  definite  clue  has  yet 
been  found  to  the  interpretation  of  their  writings. 

3.  The  Amorites. — It  seems  from  the  Biblical  statements 
that  the  Amorites  preceded  the  Hittites  in  the  occupation  of  the 
mountain  regions  of  Palestine  and  Syria. 

One  of  the  earliest  names  given  to  this  country,  as  we  now 
know  from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  was  "  the  land  of  the 
Amorites."  This  is  also  one  of  the  names  by  which  it  was 
known  distinctively  in  the  days  of  the  Patriarchs.  (Gen.  xv.  16, 
xlviii.  22.) 

It  is  plain  from  the  Scripture  narrative  as  a  whole,  that  in  the 
period  immediately  preceding  the  conquest  the  Amorites  had 
possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  mountain  regions  east  and 
west  of  the  Jordan  valley.  On  the  western  side  they  shared 
certain  portions  in  common  with,  or  alongside  of  other  moun- 
tain tribes  as  confederates :  but  in  the  east  they  had  control  of 
the  whole  country  from  the  slopes  of  Hermon  to  the  river  Ar- 
non.  This  region  was  governed  by  Og  and  Sihon,  who  are 
called  the  two  kings  of  the  Amorites.  (Deut.  iii.  8 ;  Josh.  ix. 
10.)  With  this  nation  Israel  first  of  all  came  into  conflict,  in 
the  long  continued  struggle  for  possession  of  the  promised  land. 

It  is  said,  also,  that  they  faced  "the  mountain  of  the  Amor- 
ites ' '  when  they  looked  over  the  border  of  the  land  nearly  forty 
years  before.  (Deut.  i.  19,  20.) 


34  The  Land  of  Israel 

One  of  the  Amorite  strongholds  in  the  Shephelah  was  the  city 
of  Lachish  (Tel  el  Hesy),  where  recent  excavations  have  shown 
that  it  was  the  lowest  as  well  as  the  strongest  in  its  defences  of 
all  the  towns  in  this  mound  of  long  buried  cities  and  civiliza- 
tions. 

4.  The  Hivites — The  tribe  or  nationality  to  which  this 
name  was  given  occupied  a  limited  district  north  of  Jerusalem. 
They  had  settlements  also  farther  in  the  north  under  Hermon, 
and  by  the  "  entering  in  of  Hamath."  (Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Judges  iii. 
3.)     Of  the  latter  very  little  is  known,  but  the  Hivites  of  the 
southern  district  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scripture  nar- 
rative.    They  dwelt  in  a  group  of  fortified  towns  (fenced  cities) 
which  were  leagued  together  for  mutual  support  and  defence. 
So  far  as  known  the  chief  cities  belonging  to  this  league  were 
Beeroth,    Gibeon,    Chephirah,    Kirjath-Jearim    and  Shechem. 
"  Their  cities  were  ruled  by  elders  and  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  had  kings ;  but,  as  Ewald  suggests,  to  have  adopted  thus 
early  a  pure  republican  constitution  not  unlike  the  German  free- 
cities."     (Henderson's  Geography,  p.  47.) 

5.  The  Perizzites  dwelt  in  the  plains  of  lower  Galilee  and 
in  the  foot  hills  which  bordered  the  Sharon  plain.     It  is  impos- 
sible, says  Dr.    Henderson,  to  decide  from  all  that  is  said, 
whether  they  were  a  different  race  from  the  Canaanites,  or 
merely  a  separate  class,  as  the  peasantry  of  the  time.1 

6.  The  Jebusites. — This  tribe  is  mentioned  only  in  con- 
nection with  Jerusalem   and   its   environs.      In   the   Tell   el- 
Amarna   tablets   a   correspondence   is   preserved  between  the 
Governor  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Ruler  of  Egypt  in  which  both 
the  name  and  the  antiquity  of  the  City  are  attested  beyond  all 
question.     In  these  tablets,  which  antedate  the  conquest  of 
Joshua,  the  name  appears  as  Uru-Salim,  the  city  of  Salim 
— the  city  of  peace.     It  was  at  this  early  date  a  strongly 
fortified  city,  and  its  Ruler  for  some  reason  seemed  to 
have  preeminence  over  the  districts  around  it.     One  of 

1  Henderson's  Pal.,  p.  47. 


Early  Inhabitants  of  the  Land  35 

these  Rulers,  "Ebed-Tob,"  declares  to  the  Pharoah 
that  he  was  not  like  the  other  governors  of  Canaan, 
that  he  had  not  inherited  his  royal  dignity  from  his 
father  or  his  mother,  but  had  been  appointed  to  it  by  "the 
mighty  king."  The  "  mighty  king "  is  contrasted  with  the 
"great  king  of  Egypt,  and  must  have  been  an  old  title  of  the 
god  of  Jerusalem."  1  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  this  Ruler 
claims  the  title  of  priest-king,  a  title  which  in  Genesis  is  given 
to  Melchizedek,  king  of  Salem.  When  the  lower  part  of  the 
city  was  conquered  by  Joshua  and  burned  with  fire,  the  citadel 
on  the  higher  ground  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Jebusites. 
They  were  not  driven  out  of  it  until  the  time  of  David.  (Josh. 
xv.  63;  i  Chron.  xi.  4-7.)  From  Oman,  or  Araunah,  the 
Jebusite,  at  a  later  date,  King  David  purchased  the  threshing 
floor  on  Mount  Moriah,  where  he  set  up  an  altar  to  the  Lord ; 
and  where  afterward  the  temple  was  erected  by  Solomon. 

There  are  incidental  references  in  the  Pentateuch  to  certain 
primitive  or  aboriginal  tribes,  such  as  the  Avim  or  Geshuri, 
the  Horites,  or  cave  dwellers  of  Edom,  the  Rephaim  or  giant 
race  of  Bashan,  and  their  kinsfolk  the  Anakims  of  the  south : 
but  aside  from  these  brief  statements,  little  is  known  concern- 
ing them.  They  were  probably  merged  into  the  clans,  or  con- 
federacies, of  the  later  inhabitants,  before  the  conquest. 

1  See  Article  by  Prof.  Sayce  in  Homiletic  Review,  March,  1897,  P-  2O5- 


CHAPTER  IV 

TRIBAL   AND    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS 

I.    THE  Division  among  the  Tribes. — As  a  result 

of  the  careful  surveys  which  have  been  made  in  Pales- 
tine, the  old  boundary  lines  between  the  tribes  of  Israel 
can  now  be  followed  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  and  pre- 
cision of  detail,  which  to  say  the  least,  is  very  remarkable. 

This  is  owing  mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  division  was  made 
to  conform,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  natural  features  of  the 
country.  It  implies  more  than  a  general  knowledge  of  its  con- 
figuration and  adaptations.  It  must  have  been  the  outcome  of 
an  original  survey  as  careful  and  accurate,  in  its  day,  as  that 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Survey  itself.  The  actual  recovery 
of  the  old  lines  by  retracing  the  natural  features  of  the  country, 
which  unquestionably  have  remained  without  change ;  and  the 
identification  of  long  forgotten  sites  by  names,  which,  with 
slight  changes,  have  clung  to  them  since  the  days  of  Joshua, 
furnish  a  strong  incidental  proof  in  support  of  the  claim  that 
the  record  which  defines  these  boundaries  with  such  pains- 
taking fidelity,  was  written  at  the  time  when  this  allotment, — 
itself  a  matter  of  history, — was  actually  made. 

It  seems  incredible  that  it  should  have  been  formulated  in  its 
present  shape,  or  that  it  should  have  been  regarded  of  so  much 
value  as  to  occupy  the  space  of  ten  chapters  of  the  book  of 
Joshua,  if  it  had  been  written  at  any  period  after  the  displace- 
ment or  separation  of  the  tribes.  It  is  evident,  also,  that  the 
confusion  of  lines  by  the  events  of  subsequent  history,  and  the 
formation  of  new  political  divisions,  would  have  made  the 
task  of  preparing  such  a  record  a  work  of  superhuman  wis- 
dom, as  wonderful  in  its  reach  backward  as  the  sweep  of 
the  inspired  prophets'  vision  forward  into  the  future. 


«-"";,^GH—  »* 


of 

Tribes  of  fsraet 


TTie  ttcttett  lines  inc/tcate 
firnc-ls 


Tribal  and  Political  Divisions  37 

"  All  these  facts,"  says  Major  Conder,  "  serve  assuredly 
to  prove  that  the  geography  of  the  Book  of  Joshua  is  no 
idle  tale,  but  a  real  division  of  a  real  country,  capable  of 
the  most  minute  critical  examination  by  aid  of  the  most 
scientific  modern  research."1  Those  who  desire  to  follow 
the  lines  of  these  tribal  divisions  in  specific  detail  will 
find  much  valuable  information  in  Robinson's  Later 
Researches,  Vol.  II.,  Henderson's  Palestine,  pp.  72,  82;  and 
the  recent  publications  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  For 
the  purpose  we  have  in  view  it  will  be  sufficient  to  present  a 
brief  statement  of  the  relative  position  of  the  several  tribes. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan  the  first  allotment  of  ter- 
ritory was  made  to  the  Tribe  of  Judah.  It  included  the 
whole  country  south  of  Jerusalem  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Dead  Sea.  Its  area  as  originally  outlined  was  more  than 
2,000  square  miles.  The  Wilderness,  the  central  mountain 
district,  the  Shephelah,  the  plain  of  Philistia,  and  the  Negeb, 
or  south  country, — were  all  included  within  its  limits.  The 
southern  portion  was  afterward  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon. 

The  boundaries  of  this  grant  are  not  accurately  defined,  but 
it  is  evident  from  the  list  of  towns  belonging  to  Simeon  that  the 
region  about  Beersheba  and  all  of  the  district  south  of  it  to 
Kadesh  Barnea  were  included.  The  reason  for  this  allotment 
is  given  in  Joshua  xix.  9.  "  For  the  part  of  the  children  of 
Judah  was  too  much  for  them,  therefore  the  children  of  Simeon 
had  their  inheritance  within  the  inheritance  of  them." 

The  inheritance  of  Judah  was  curtailed,  also  by  the  failure 
of  the  people  to  drive  the  Philistines  from  their  strongholds  on 
the  coast  plain.  At  times  it  was  occupied  as  a  whole,  or  in 
part,  but  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  period  of  Israel's 
national  life  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  or  other  alien 
nationalities. 

The  Portion  of  Benjamin  extended  northward  from  the 
border  line  of  Judah  to  Baal  Hazor,  a  conspicuous  mountain  about 
1  Primer  of  Bible  Geography,  p.  97. 


38 


The  Land  of  Israel 


twelve  miles  from  Jerusalem.  The  eastern  boundary  for  five  or  six 
miles  was  the  Jordan.  Thence  it  extended  to  Beth-Horon  and 
Kirjath-Jearim,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountain  ridge, — a 
distance  of  thirty  miles. 

Its  area  is  estimated  at  about  400  miles.  Except  a  cross 
section  of  the  Jordan  plain,  the  inheritance  of  Benjamin  was 
rugged  and  mountainous.  In  the  early  days  of  the  occupation 
it  included  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  but  after  adjustments  gave  to 
Judah  a  joint  possession  in  the  Holy  places  within  its  walls. 
The  two  noted  passes,  Michmash  on  the  east,  and  Beth-Horon 
on  the  west,  gave  to  this  warlike  tribe  the  control  of  the  whole 
mountain  region  and  made  it  the  natural  defender  of  Jerusalem 
on  the  north.  On  the  heights  of  Benjamin  some  of  the  most 
stirring  events  in  Old  Testament  history  took  place,  and  here 
may  still  be  seen  on  slope  and  summit  of  every  shapely  hill  the 
ruins  of  terraced  vineyards  and  fenced  cities. 

"  On  the  northwest  border  of  Benjamin,  Ataroth  Adar  (Ed  Darieh),and 
Archi  ( Ain  Arik)  have  been  recovered  in  exact  accordance  with  the  words  of 
the  Bible  (Joshua  xviii.  13),  which  define  the  position  of  the  former  with 
the  greatest  minuteness."  » 

The  territory  of  Dan  adjoined  Benjamin  on  the  west.  It 
included  the  foot-hills  and  a  section  of  the  coast  plain  from 
Ekron  to  the  river  Aujeh  north  of  Jaffa.  It  was  never  fully 
occupied  by  this  tribe  and  was  held  for  a  time  as  a  fortified 
camp  ("the  Camp  of  Dan")  rather  than  a  permanent  posses- 
sion. In  the  period  of  the  Judges  a  large  part  of  the  tribe 
removed  from  this  to  a  new  location  at  the  head  waters  of  the 
Jordan.  Some  of  the  towns  abandoned  by  the  Danites 
were  afterward  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

The  tribe  of  Joseph — usually  designated  as  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  (the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh)  was  given  a  large  and 
exceptionally  rich  portion  of  territory  north  of  the  inheritance 
of  Benjamin  and  Dan.  It  extended  westward  from  the  Jordan 

1  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  1 15. 


Tribal  and  Political  Divisions  39 

to  the  Sea  and  northward  to  the  borders  of  the  plains  of  Acre 
and  Esdraelon.  The  boundary  between  Ephraim  and  Manassch 
is  not  clearly  defined  except  on  the  coast  plain  where  it  is  defined 
as  the  course  of  the  brook  Kanah.  This  brook  (Wady  Kanah) 
flows  westward  from  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Gerizim  and  its 
course  is  now  for  the  first  time  correctly  laid  down  on  the  map 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Survey.  Shechem,  and  other 
towns  in  its  vicinity,  were  included  in  the  original  allotment 
which  fell  to  Ephraim,  but  the  hill  of  Samaria,  on  which  in 
later  times  the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes  was  built,  seems  to  have 
fallen  within  the  borders  of  Manasseh.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  whole  of  the  mountain  region  north  of  the 
border  of  Benjamin  to  the  break  made  by  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
was  designated  collectively  as  "  Mount  Ephraim,"  or  the  moun- 
tains of  Ephraim,  in  the  period  preceding  the  division  of  the 
kingdom.  The  portion  of  the  range  south  of  the  north  border 
of  Benjamin  was  called  the  "Mountain"  or  "Hill  country" 
of  Judah. 

To  the  tribe  of  Issachar  was  given  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
rich  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Tabor  and  the  hills  of  Galilee  formed 
the  line  of  its  northern  boundary.  Its  extreme  southern  limit 
was  En-gannim  (Jenin)  on  the  edge  of  the  great  plain.  For 
some  reason,  not  explained,  the  strong  fortress  town  of  Beth- 
shan,  at  the  eastward  end  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel  was  not  in- 
cluded in  its  limits,  but  was  assigned  to  Manasseh.  (Judges  i.  27.) 

The  territory  assigned  to  Zebulun  northwest  of 
the  allotment  of  Issachar.  The  line  between  these  tribes  ran 
along  the  base  of  the  hills  of  Galilee,  which  border  the  Es- 
draelon plain  on  the  north,  to  the  Kishon  river.  Thence  it 
followed  its  course  along  the  base  of  Mount  Carmel  to  the  Sea. 
Its  limit  on  the  east  seems  to  have  been  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Mount  Tabor,  but  according  to  Josephus  it  afterward  ex- 
tended to  the  lake  of  Galilee.  Its  western  border  or  "  out- 
going "  was  on  the  plain  of  Acre.  The  valley  of  Jiphthah-el, 
on  the  northwest,  now  known  as  Wady  el-Kurn  is  mentioned 


4:0  The  Land  of  Israel 

as  one  of  the  landmarks  between  Zebulun  and  Asher:  and 
another  is  given  at  Hannathon  (Kefr*  Anan)  on  the  north- 
east, which  Henderson  locates  eleven  miles  north  of  Rimmon. 
Without  entering  into  detail  these  points  indicate  that  the 
line  ran  north  of  the  rich  plain  of  Buttauf  through  the  Wady 
el-Kurn  to  a  point  at,  or  near  the  mouth  of  the  Belus  river,  to 
the  Sea.1 

The  inheritance  of  the  tribes  of  Asher  and  Naph- 
tali  extended  northward  of  this  territory  side  by  side  to  the 
northern  limit  of  occupation  of  the  land  of  Israel. 

Asher  held  the  portion  next  the  sea  while  Naphtali  pos- 
sessed the  hill  country  to  the  Jordan  valley,  including  the 
western  border — according  to  the  original  allotment — of  the 
sea  of  Galilee.  Dr.  Henderson  thinks  it  possible  that  the 
actual  possessions  of  Asher  were  extended  much  farther  north 
than  the  Litany,  inasmuch  as  Joab  went  as  far  as  Riblah  in 
taking  the  census  of  Israel.  It  is  certain,  also,  that  the  allot- 
ment extended  north  of  Sidon,  which  is  twenty  miles  beyond  the 
city  of  Tyre.  (Joshua  xix.  28-39.)  Ijon,  in  the  Merj  'Ajun, 
is  the  farthest  town  northward  which  has  yet  been  identified 
in  the  inheritance  of  Naphtali. 

On  this  side  of  the  Jordan  Kedesh  of  Naphtali,  Shechem, 
and  Hebron  were  designated  as  Cities  of  Refuge. 

The  territory  conquered  by  the  Israelites  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Jordan  was  divided  between  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  This  divi- 
sion was  made  along  the  lines  suggested  by  the  natural  divisions 
of  the  country. 

To  Reuben  was  assigned  the  northern  portion  of  the  land 
of  Moab :  to  Gad  the  land  of  Gilead,  extending  to  the  river 

1 "  From  some  expressions  it  would  seem  as  if  the  territory  of  Asher  as 
at  first  assigned,  went  south  of  Cannel :  but  if  so  some  of  the  land  in  the 
first  instance  given  to  Asher  must  have  been  ceded  to  Zebulon,  which 
certainly  readied  the  Hay  of  Acre,  and  possessed  the  north  slope  of  Car- 
mel." — Henderson's  Palestine,  p.  101. 


Divisions  ofPalesth 

in  I; tie 
Time  of  Christ 


Tribal  and  Political  Divisions  41 

Jarmuk :  and  to  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  the  land  of 
Bashan. 

The  Cities  of  Refuge  on  this  side  of  the  river  were  Golan 
in  Bashan ;  Ramoth  in  Gilead,  and  Bezar  or  Bosor  in  Moab. 

2.  Division  of  the  Kingdoms. — In  the  division  of  the 
Kingdom  after  the  death  of  Solomon  the  line  of  separation  be- 
tween Israel  and  Judah  was  on,  or  very  near  the  old  division 
line  between  Benjamin  and  Ephraim.     There  were  periods  in 
the  history  of  the  rival  kingdoms  when  slight  changes  were 
made,  Bethel  being  at  first  within  the  northern :  and  in  later 
times  within  the  limits  of  the  southern  kingdom.     Hence,  as 
Major  Conder  suggests,  the  name  of  Mount  Ephraim  sometimes 
applies  in  the  Bible  to  country  south  of  the  border  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim  as  laid  down  in  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

All  the  territory  east  of  the  Jordan  was  included  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel. 

3.  Political  Divisions  in  the  time  of  Christ. — In  the 

period  of  Roman  rule  the  entire  country  south  of  Lebanon  was 
divided  into  three  Provinces,  viz :  Galilee,  Samaria  and  Judea. 
Galilee  was  north  of  Mount  Carmel,  and  the  southern  border 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Samaria  extended  southward  of 
this  province  to  the  boundary  line  which  separated  Ephraim 
from  Manasseh.  Conder  defines  its  limits  in  general  terms, 
as  "the  land  of  Manasseh  west  of  Jordan."  On  the  coast 
plain  the  brook  Kanah — as  we  have  seen — was  the  dividing 
line. 

The  country  south  of  Samaria,  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Jordan  valley  and  the  Dead  Sea  retained  the  old  name 
of  Judah,  or  Judea.  Its  southern  portion  was  sometimes  re- 
garded as  a  separate  province  under  the  name  of  Idumea. 
The  Idumeans  were  Edomites  who  took  possession  of  this 
region  during  the  time  of  the  captivity.  They  were  conquered 
during  the  period  of  the  Maccabees,  but  were  permitted  to 


42  The  Land  of  Israel 

remain  in  the  land  on  condition  of  receiving  the  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision. The  Herodian  family  were  of  Idumean  descent. 

In  the  Roman  period  Phoenicia  included  the  whole  of  the 
coast  plain  from  Tripoli  to  Achzib,  ten  miles  north  of  Acre. 

The  trans-Jordanic  country  south  of  the  Hieromax, 
or  Yarmuk  river  was  usually  designated  as  Perea — the  region 
beyond.  In  a  narrower  sense  this  term  was  sometimes  limited 
to  the  land  of  Gilead. 

After  the  captivity,  Bashan,  the  northern  province  of  East- 
ern Palestine,  was  divided  into  five  districts,  known  as  Gaul- 
anitis^ Auranitis,  Iturea,  Trachonitis,  and  Batanea. 

Gaulanitis,  corresponding  with  the  modern  Jaulan,  covered 
all  of  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains,  and  the  more  rugged 
part  of  the  plateau,  south  of  Lake  Huleh. 

Auranitis,  the  Hauran  in  its  restricted  sense,  included  the 
level  plateau  east  of  Gaulanitis. 

Iturea,  the  modern  district  of  Jedur,  was  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  province,  above  the  districts  of  Gaulanitis  and 
Auranitis. 

Trachonitis  was  the  lava  district  east  of  the  Hauran,  and 
Batanea  was  probably  a  strip  of  border-land  to  the  southeast, 
which  included  the  cluster  of  mountains  now  called  Jebel 
Hauran. 

The  region  of  Decapolis,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Matt.  iv.  25  ;  Mark  vii.  21)  was  southeast  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee.  The  ten  cities,  which  gave  the  name  to  the  dis- 
trict, were  all  east  of  the  Jordan,  except  Bethshan,  or  Scythop- 
olis  as  it  was  termed  after  the  captivity.  This  was  a  con- 
venient grouping  of  towns  but  not  a  geographical  division  of 
territory. 

Before  the  advent  of  Christ  the  Jews  were  scattered  through 
all  the  provinces  of  the  country.  Everywhere  they  came  into 
close  contact  with  Greek  and  Roman  civilization,  but  they  re- 
mained separate  and  distinct  in  their  religious  life  and  national 
characteristics.  "  Before  the  Roman  occupation  under  Pompey 


Tribal  and  Political  Divisions  43 

all  Gilead  and  Bashan  with  Moab  were  again  Israel's  and  the 
Greek  cities  were  Judaized."  ' 

West  of  the  Jordan  the  influence  of  the  Jews  was  paramount 
also,  except  in  Samaria,  which  was  regarded  as  a  heathen  or 
semi-heathen  province. 

1  Smith's  Hist.  Ueog.,  p.  590. 


CHAPTER  \ 

HIGHWAYS   AND   CARAVAN   ROUTES 

THE  Land  of  Israel  was  brought  into  communication  with 
the  outside  world  mainly  through  four  great  highways, — 

1 .  The  oldest  and  most  notable  of  these  international  routes 
was  the  great  thoroughfare  along  the  Mediterranean  coast,  con- 
necting Egypt  with  Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  the  empires  of  the 
East.     At  the  northern  end  of  the  Lebanon  range  it  passed 
through  the  natural  gateway,  called  the  entrance  of  Hamath, 
into  the  Orontes  valley  and  thence  to  the  Euphrates. 

2.  The  caravan  route  from  Tyre  and  Sidon  across  Lebanon 
to  Damascus,  Palmyra  and  the  Euphrates. 

3.  The  route  from  Gaza  by  way  of  Petra  and  Duma  to  the 
Persian  Gulf. 

4.  A  parallel  to  the  coast  road,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
land,  from  Damascus  to  the  yElanitic  Gulf  and  the  peninsula 
of  Arabia.     In  general  direction  this  corresponded  to  the  mod- 
ern Haj  or  pilgrimage  route  to  Mecca.     Over  the  northern  part 
of  this  route,  most  probably,  the  patriarch  Abraham  and  his 
grandson  Jacob,  journeyed  from  Damascus  to  the  crossroads, 
or  wadies,  which  led  to  the  upper  fords  of  the  Jordan. 

The  coast  road  was  the  favorite  military  route  between  the 
Nile  and  Euphrates  valleys.  For  about  5,000  years  this  has 
been  the  well-trodden  "  war  path  of  the  nations."  l 

On  a  bold  promontory,  which  juts  out  almost  to  the  sea  at 
Dog  river,  ten  miles  north  of  Beirut,  there  are  nine  tablets  cov- 
ered with  inscriptions  deeply  carved  on  the  rocks. 

1  This  route,  which  was  obstructed  by  several  spurs  from  the  mountains, 
extending  across  the  plain  to  the  sea,  was  made  passible  for  armies  by  the 
engineering  skill  of  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  "  The  steps  or  zigzags 
which  surmounted  these  natural  obstacles  were  known  to  the  Greeks  au^. 
Romans  under  the  name  oi  Climaces."  See  Rawlinson's  Phoenicia,  p.  7. 

44 


ASCENT   OF   PASS   OF  NAHR  EL  KELB 

FROM    NORTH,    WITH    ONE    OF   THE   TABLETS 


Highways  and  Caravan  Routes  45 

After  a  silence  of  many  centuries  these  tablets  have  at  last 
declared  their  secrets,  and  they  prove  to  be  the  boastful  records 
of  some  of  the  greatest  of  the  leaders  of  the  Egyptian  and  As- 
syrian hosts,  who  took  this  method  of  celebrating  the  passage 
of  the  narrow,  and  apparently  impassible  way.  Three  of  the 
tablets  bear  the  name  of  Rameses  II.  On  the  others  are  the 
names  of  Tiglath  Pileser,  Assur-banipal,  Shalmaneser, 
Esar-haddon. 

"  Among  the  striking  features  of  this  pass  are  the  old  road  beds  cut  in 
the  solid  limestone  rock  by  successive  monarchs  of  antiquity.  The  foot 
holes  of  the  horses  and  the  grooves  worn  by  the  chariot  wheels  of  armies 
are  still  distinctly  traceable  in  the  rock.  Here  passed  Pul,  Tiglath  Pileser, 
Sesostris,  Shalmanezer,  Sargon,  and  Sennacherib ;  here  swarmed  the  hosts 
of  Alexander  the  Great  en  route  for  Egypt ;  here  passed  the  Romans,  the 
later  Greeks,  the  Arabs,  the  Turks,  and  the  Crusaders;  and  here  pass 
constantly  the  traders  and  travellers  of  the  East." l 

The  main  arterial  route  of  travel  and  commerce  between  the 
east  and  west  for  centuries  has  been  the  section  of  the  coast 
road  between  Gaza  and  Mount  Carmel.  While  for  some  rea- 
son, probably  for  greater  security  from  attack,  its  continuation 
north  of  Carmel  was  traversed  by  most  of  the  great  military 
leaders  of  ancient  times,  there  was  a  deflection  from  the  main 
line  eastward  by  way  of  the  valley  of  Dothan,  and  the  Esdraelon 
plain,  which  was  a  favorite  route  for  those  bent  on  commerce 
or  ordinary  travel.  This  led  to  the  principal  fords  of  the  Jordan 
near  Bethshan  and  thence  along  the  uplands  of  Bashan  to  Da- 
mascus and  the  East.  Over  this  great  trade  route  the  caravan 
of  Ishmaelites,  to  whom  Joseph  was  sold  as  a  slave,  "came 
from  Gilead,  with  their  camels,  bearing  spicery  and  balm  and 
myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt."  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.) 

The  main  routes  of  a  local  character  within  the  limits  of 
Israel's  possession  were : 

i.  From  Jerusalem  to  Jaffa  by  way  of  Beth-Horon  and 
Lydda. 

1  Article  in  Picturesque  Pal.,  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Jessup,  Vol.  II.,  p.  31. 


46 


The  Land  of  Israel 


2.  From  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem  and  Hebron ;  thence  west- 
ward to  Gaza  and  eastward  to  the  desert. 

3.  From  Jerusalem  to  Jericho  and  thence  across  the  Jordan 
into  Perea.     This  route  recrossed  the  river  at  one  of  the  upper 
fords  into  Galilee.     An  alternate  route  was  up  the  west  bank 
of  the  Jordan  to  Bethshan. 

4.  From  Jerusalem  to  Galilee  over  the  patriarchal  highway, 
which  for  the  most  part  led  along  the  summit  of  the  mountains 
of  Benjamin  and  Ephraim.     A  continuation  of  this  road  passed 
on  to  Damascus  by  way  of  Capernaum,  the  Hulah  basin,  and 
the  eastern  slope  of  Mount  Hermon. 

5.  From  Acre  to  the  trans-Jordanic  country  across  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon  and  down  the  valley  of  Jezreel. 

6.  From  Hamath  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes  to  Baalbec 
and  the  head  waters  of  the  Jordan.     In  the  Bible  the  first  inti- 
mation with  respect  to  the  construction  of  public  roadways  is 
given  in  connection  with  the  establishment  of  the  Cities  of 
Refuge.     (Deut.  xix.  3.)     The  rock  beds  of  the  paved  roads 
of  the  Roman  period  may  still  be  seen  in  many  places,  espe- 
cially in  some  sections  of  Eastern  Palestine. 

The  use  of  chariots  in  war,  and  for  display  in  the  time  of 
the  Kings,  implies  the  construction  of  suitable  roads,  but  these 
were  usually  constructed  on  the  plains  or  in  the  valleys  leading 
up  to  the  rugged  highland  country.  In  general  the  roads  over 
the  mountain  districts  were  pathways,  or  trails. 

At  suitable  distances  on  all  the  roads  Khans  were  maintained 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  travelling  caravans.  When  once 
established  their  location  was  seldom,  if  ever,  changed.  In  many 
instances  modern  travellers  have  found  a  resting  place  for  them- 
selves and  their  horses,  or  camels  in  caravansaries,  whose  names 
and  histories  antedate  the  Christian  era.  While  these  rude 
structures  have  doubtless  changed  and  given  way  to  others 
many  times,  the  sites  still  remain ;  and  the  names  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation  attest  the  use  to  which  they  have 
been  originally  set  apart. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PRESENT   CONDITION    OF  THE   LAND 

THERE  is  much  in  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  at  the 
present  time,  suggestive  of  change,  desolation  and  decay.  Pal- 
estine is  preeminently  a  land  of  ruins. 

The  terraced  slopes,  which  were  once  cultivated  with  extreme 
care,  have  been  broken  down ;  the  rich  soil  has  been  washed 
away,  and  naught  remains  except  the  bare  shelving  rock  swept 
smooth  with  wind  and  rain.  In  many  places  the  highways  of 
former  times  have  shrunken  into  camel  paths  or  mountain  trails. 
All  over  the  land  the  scattered  debris  of  towns  and  villages 
crown  the  heights  or  lie  half  hidden  in  the  luxuriant  over- 
growth of  the  valleys  and  plains ;  while  beneath  the  soil  in 
hundreds  of  tells  or  artificial  mounds,  lie  the  ruins  of  super- 
imposed cities,  some  of  which  contain  the  relics  of  former 
civilizations  as  old  as  the  days  of  the  Patriarchs. 

A  few  of  the  towns  and  ancient  cities  are  now  inhabited : 
but  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  nomads  wander  as  in 
the  time  of  Abraham  with  flocks  and  herds.  Except  where 
the  flags  of  European  nations  extend  their  kindly  protection, 
the  roving  bands  of  Bedouins  make  life  and  property  insecure. 

In  view  of  all  these  things,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  resist  the 
impression  that  a  series  of  judgments,  such  as  were  long  ago 
foretold  by  the  prophets  of  Israel,  have  overtaken  the  land  and 
its  inhabitants. 

There  are  some  things,  however,  that  remain  unchanged, 
amid  these  changes  and  desolations.  The  geographical  fea- 
tures we  have  been  considering  have  not  changed  in  form  or 
general  characteristics  since  it  was  given  to  the  people  of  Israel 
for  a  possession.  The  rugged  framework  of  the  land:  its 

47 


The  Land  of  Israel 


towering  mountains  and  deeply  grooved  valleys  present  the 
same  aspect  to-day  as  when  Moses  looked  down  upon  them 
from  the  summit  of  Mount  Nebo.  While  the  destruction  of 
the  forests  and  the  breaking  down  of  terraces  and  aqueducts 
have  in  many  places  turned  the  fruitful  field  into  a  wilderness, 
the  country  as  a  whole  is  still  subject  to  the  conditions  which 
governed  its  climatic  changes  in  the  period  of  the  Sacred 
writers.  Now  as  in  the  past  the  early  and  latter  rains  come  in 
their  appointed  seasons  :  the  heavy  dews  give  moisture  to  field 
and  hillside ;  wonderful  transformations  follow  the  time  of  clear 
shining  alter  the  rain  "  and  the  corn  and  wine  and  oil  have  not 
ceased  from  the  land."  "The  true  curses  of  the  country," 
says  Major  Conder,  "are  injustice  and  ignorance;  and  the 
decay  of  population  has  led  to  the  shrinking  of  agriculture  and 
to  the  spread  of  briars,  thorns,  and  rough  brushwood  where 
once  were  wine-presses  and  vineyard  towers."  l 

Within  the  last  quarter  of  this  century,  and  especially  within 
the  last  decade,  there  have  been  important  changes  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  that  point  unmistakably  to  a  restoration  of  long 
lost  privileges.  These  consist  mainly  in  the  planting  of  pros- 
perous colonies  in  various  parts  of  the  country  ;  and  the  open- 
ing of  new  carriage  roads  and  railroads  to  important  centres  both 
east  and  west  of  the  Jordan.  At  the  present  time  Jaffa  and 
Jerusalem  are  connected  by  a  railroad  fifty-four  miles  in  length, 
which  was  opened  for  travel  and  traffic  August  27th,  1889. 

The  Damascus-Hauran  rail  road,  running  to  Meserib,  the 
starting  point  for  the  caravans  to  Mecca,  has  been  completed 
and  is  said  to  be  yielding  large  returns  on  the  investment.  The 
line  over  the  Lebanons  from  Beirut  to  Damascus  has  also  been 
opened  for  travel.  In  addition  to  these,  railroads  have  been 
projected  from  Haifa  to  Damascus ;  from  Tripoli  to  Damascus ; 
from  Beirut  to  Sidon,  and  northward  to  Tripoli;  and  from 
Egypt  to  the  Euphrates  over  the  old  military  route  by  way  of 
Gaza,  Jaffa  and  the  Entrance  of  Hamath. 

1  The  City  and  the  Land,  p.  34. 


Present  Condition  of  the  Land  49 

A  little  steamer,  built  by  a  Greek  priest  of  the  Monastery, 
"Mar  Hauna,"  carries  passengers  from  the  Nimrim  ford  of  the 
Jordan  to  the  landing-place  of  Kerak  on  the  Dead  Sea,  reduc- 
ing the  distance  between  Jericho  and  Kerak  to  a  journey  of  a 
single  day.  A  well  graded  carriage  road  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  rough  mountain  trail  which  formerly  led  down  from 
Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea. 

On  the  high  ground  overlooking  this  "  silent  sea  "  a  modern 
"Cafe"  has  been  erected;  and  at  Jericho  the  traveller  may 
now  enjoy  the  comforts  of  a  good  "  Hotel." 

In  all  of  these  movements  we  may  read  the  signs  of  a  special 
providential  oversight,  never  wholly  withdrawn  from  this  land, 
which  is  surely  bringing  out  of  the  night  of  its  long,  gloomy 
past  the  dawning  of  a  better  day. 

Addenda — May  z,  1907. — Railroads  have  been  recently  con- 
structed and  are  now  carrying  passengers  from  Haifa  to  Da- 
mascus, via  Mezerib:  from  Damascus  to  Hamath,  via  Baalbek 
and  Hums:  from  Damascus  to  Medina, via  Amman  and  Main. 

A  carriage  road  will  soon  be  completed  from  Amman  to  Je- 
rusalem. This  connection  will  give  a  through  route  for  pil- 
grims and  tourists  from  Jaffa  to  many  interesting  places  east  of 
the  Jordan.  From  Jerusalem  to  Nablous  a  good  carriage  road 
has  recently  been  completed  and  this  connects  with  another 
well  constructed  road  to  Haifa.  Tours  are  now  made  by  rail 
from  Beirut  to  Damascus  over  the  Lebanons  and  thence  by  way 
of  the  Hauran  and  Lake  of  Galilee  to  Haifa.  At  a  station  on 
the  lake  carriages  may  be  taken  for  Cana  and  Nazareth.  A 
macadamized  road  connects  Beirut  with  Jaffa  and  a  new  road 
has  been  built  from  Jaffa  to  Gaza  and  Beersheba.  Accommo- 
dations may  be  obtained  in  hotels  along  all  these  routes  and 
safety  is  assured  to  the  traveller  in  every  part  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  VII 

HISTORY   AND   ASSOCIATIONS 

THE  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  is  so  closely  associated 
with  its  History  that  the  one  cannot  be  studied  intelligently 
without  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  salient  points,  at  least,  of 
the  other.  These  may  be  briefly  grouped  under  three  periods 
of  national  or  provincial  occupation ;  viz :  The  Canaanite, 
Israelite  and  Gentile. 

I.  The  Canaanite  Period. — In  the  Scripture  narrative 
the  land  of  Canaan  comes  into  view  about  2,000 — or  as  some 
good  authorities  reckon  it  2, 200  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Under  the  general  term  Canaanite,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
Amorites,  who  were  probably  the  first  settlers  in  the  mountain 
district,  with  other  associated  tribes,  were  included.  For 
many  centuries  this  account  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants 
stood  alone,  and  there  are  few  of  its  historical  statements  which 
have  not  been  questioned  or  repudiated  as  mythical  or  unhis- 
toric. 

In  recent  years,  however,  a  flood  of  light  has  been  poured 
upon  this  region  and  its  early  inhabitants.  Out  of  this  mass 
of  information,  which  has  been  diligently  collected  and  care- 
fully stored  in  libraries  and  museums,  a  new  history  of  the  an- 
cient world  has  been  constructed  in  which  may  be  found  con- 
firmations, parallelisms,  and  illustrations  of  the  Sacred  record 
both  numerous  and  striking. 

(i)  CANAAN  AS  A  BABYLONIAN  PROVINCE. — From  the 
cuneiform  records,  which  antedate  the  historical  statements 
given  in  the  Bible  by  several  centuries,  we  find  that  this  land 
in  the  earliest  period  of  its  settlement  was  regarded  as  a  prov- 
ince or  dependency  of  Babylon.  The  general  name  given  to 

60 


History  and  Associations  51 

the  country,  including  Phoenicia  was  "  mat  Amuri,"  the  land 
of  the  Amorites. 

In  the  annals  of  Sargon,  king  of  Agade,  the  founder  of  the 
first  Chaldean  Empire,  mention  is  made  of  four  expeditions  to 
this  "land  of  the  Amorites,"  over  which  he  claimed  the  exer- 
cise of  supreme  authority.  His  son  Naram-Sin,  extended  this 
dominion  to  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  and  developed  its  famous 
copper  mines. 

If  the  statement  on  the  cylinder  of  Nabonidus,  translated  by 
M.  Pinches  in  1880,  can  be  accepted  as  historic,  this  king 
reigned  3,200  years  before  the  time  of  Nabonidus  or  about 
3800  B.  c.  Previous  to  the  finding  of  this  inscription  the  gen- 
eral consensus  of  scholars  had  assigned  the  date  of  Sargon's 
reign  to  a  period  about  2000  B.  c.  All  the  evidence,  which 
bears  upon  this  point  confirms  the  view,  so  generally  held  by 
all  the  authorities,  that  he  could  not  have  lived  later  than  this 
date. 

On  the  assumption,  therefore,  that  the  date  given  by  Naboni- 
dus is  only  a  boastful  declaration,  of  doubtful  authority,  it  is 
still  true  that  this  "  Westland  "  of  the  old  world  was  under  the 
influence  and  control  of  Babylonia  and  Elam,  as  the  Scripture 
narrative  implies,  before  the  birth  of  Abraham.  Says  Professor 
Sayce : 

"  We  have  learned  from  the  cuneiform  monuments  of  Babylonia  that 
long  before  the  days  of  Chedorlaomer  campaigns  were  undertaken  against 
Palestine  by  the  Babylonian  monarchs,  and  that  in  the  age  of  Abraham 
the  rulers  of  Chaldea  claimed  to  be  also  kings  of  Syria  and  Canaan." 

King  Gudea  whose  date  is  given,  about  2500  B.  c. — accord- 
ing to  the  statement  of  Nabonidus — "ruled  over  the  whole  of 
Mesopotamia.  He  tells  us  how  he  hewed  cedars  in  Lebanon 
and  brought  granite  from  Sinai  to  carve  his  statues,  which 
have  been  brought  recently  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Louvre  in 
Paris."  i 

>  The  City  and  the,  kan.d,  p.  36. 


52 


The  Land  of  Israel 


These  and  many  other  statements  of  like  character  show  con- 
clusively that  in  the  earliest  periods  known  to  history,  Canaan 
was  a  dependency  of  the  empires  of  the  East,  being  subject  to 
them,  at  times  at  least,  and  receiving  from  them  its  literature 
and  culture.  In  the  first  glimpses  which  we  have  of  the  coun- 
try it  appears  to  be  sparsely  settled.  Outside  of  Phoenicia  and 
the  great  plains  it  was  an  open  common,  where  herdsmen  and 
confederated  bands  of  different  nationalities  moved  about  at 
will. 

There  were  cities  in  the  plains,  and  walled  towns  and  for- 
tresses on  the  frontiers  in  which  the  settled  population  dwelt 
and  carried  on  the  various  vocations  peculiar  to  the  time  and 
locality. 

Near  the  close  of  this  long  period  of  Eastern  supremacy 
(c.  1600  B.  c.)  these  permanent  centres  of  civilization  had  be- 
come the  rallying  points  for  numerous  independent  principal- 
ities and  petty  kingdoms,  which,  in  case  of  need,  were  allied 
together  for  mutual  support  and  protection.  A  great  change 
had  also  come  over  the  hill  country.  The  rocky  slopes  in 
every  portion  of  the  land  had  been  brought  under  cultivation 
by  means  of  terraces  and  artificial  appliances  for  the  distribution 
of  water ;  and  walled  cities  of  great  strength  had  arisen  upon 
commanding  elevations  in  all  the  habitable  districts  of  the  sev- 
eral tribes.  The  records  of  the  Bible  and  the  monuments 
agree  in  their  representations  of  the  rapid  growth,  advanced 
culture  and  material  strength  of  the  people  of  the  land  in  the 
period  in  which  the  Israelites  dwelt  in  Egypt.  They  also  agree 
in  their  classification  of  the  three  dominant  races  at  this  time, 
— the  Amorites,  the  Canaanites  and  the  Hittites. 

(2)  CANAAN  AS  AN  EGYPTIAN  PROVINCE. — The  battle  of 
Megiddo,  which  took  place  about  1550  B.  c.,  gave  to  the 
Egyptians  the  dominant  control  of  the  southern  portion  of  Syria 
for  about  three  centuries.  The  contestants  in  this  conflict  were 
the  Egyptians  under  Thotmes  III.,  the  Napoleon  of  the  eigh- 
teenth Dynasty,  and  the  Hittites  with  their  allies.  The  power 


History  and  Associations  53 

and  wealth  of  the  latter  nation,  which  at  this  time  stood  between 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  may  be  inferred  from  the  description  of  the 
spoils  taken  from  them  in  this  memorable  campaign. 

In  connection  with  a  list  of  119  captured  towns  inscribed 
upon  the  columns  of  one  of  the  temples  at  Karnak  mention  is 
made  of  precious  stones  of  great  value,  vessels  and  ornaments 
of  solid  gold,  and  924  chariots  including  the  chariot  of  the 
Hittite  king,  covered  with  plates  of  gold. 

The  Tell  el-Amarna  tablets  and  the  inscriptions  on  various 
temples  of  Upper  Egypt  have  thrown  much  light  upon  the 
history  of  the  country  during  the  time  of  its  subjection  to  the 
rulers  of  Egypt.  They  furnish  us  with  long  lists  of  its  principal 
cities  in  the  cuneiform  language,  including  Megiddo,  Kedesh, 
Tyre,  Sidon,  Gebal  Gezar,  Lachish,  Jerusalem.  These  towns 
were  either  ruled  by  Egyptian  governors  or  by  native  rulers 
who  reported  directly  to  the  reigning  Pharoah.  For  a  short 
period — a  .half  century  or  more — the  Egyptians  seem  to  have 
lost  their  hold  upon  the  country,  which  was  left  without  a  cen- 
tral government,  or  a  chief  ruler,  who  had  the  power  to  bind 
the  independent  clans  of  the  various  localities  together. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Period. — The  time  of  Israel's  occupa- 
tion of  the  land,  beginning  with  the  conquest  under  Joshua  and 
ending  with  the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  under  the  Roman 
general  Titus,  covered  a  stretch  of  nearly  fifteen  centuries.  The 
golden  age  of  this  period — as  we  have  seen — was  in  the  days  of 
David  and  Solomon,  when  the  whole  land  from  the  entrance 
of  Hamath  to  the  river  of  Egypt  was  held  as  a  possession,  and 
the  nations  around  from  the  sea  to  the  great  river  were  subject ; 
contributing  to  its  resources  and  renown  the  choicest  products 
of  their  labor  and  skill. 

After  the  death  of  Solomon  and  the  division  of  the  kingdom, 
the  territory  of  Israel  was  "  cut  short "  and  gradually  dimin- 
ished on  every  side.  This  was  in  accordance  with  the  oft-re- 
peated warnings  of  the  prophets,  in  consequence  of  the  persist- 
ent idolatry  of  the  people  and  their  long  continued  disavowal 


54:  The  Land  of  Israel 

of  the  principles  of  righteousness,  by  which  alone  they  held  the 
tenure  of  the  land.  (2  Kings  x.  32,  33.) 

On  the  north  the  scattered  tribes  and  nationalities  from  Leb- 
anon to  the  Euphrates  revolted  from  the  dominion  of  Israel 
and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Syria.  The  head  of  this  king- 
dom, which  soon  became  the  leading  power  in  all  Syria,  was 
Damascus. 

Except  a  brief  period  in  and  after  the  reign  of  Jereboam  II., 
(circa  B.  c.  800)  this  rival  kingdom  occupied  and  held  the 
whole  of  the  district  of  Lebanon. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  it  wasted,  at  times,  the  northern 
borders  of  the  ten  tribes  and  menaced  the  safety  of  their  seat 
of  government  at  Samaria.  In  the  reign  of  Hazael  (c.  860) 
the  Syrians  conquered  all  of  Israel's  possessions  east  of  the 
Jordan  (2  Kings  x.  32,  33)  :  and  at  the  same  time  reduced  the 
allied  tribes  on  the  west,  for  a  time,  to  a  state  of  vassalage. 
(2  Kings  xiii.  1-8.) 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  the  kingdom  of 
Syria  came  under  the  power  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and  the 
ten  tribes  abandoned  of  Jehovah,  shared  in  their  fate. 

In  the  year  721  they  were  carried  away  to  Halah  and  Habor 
beyond  the  Tigris.  "And  the  king  of  Assyria  brought  men 
from  Babylon  and  from  Cuthah  and  from  Ava,  and  from 
Hamath,  and  from  Sepharvaim,  and  placed  them  in  the  cities 
of  Samaria,  instead  of  the  children  of  Israel :  and  they  pos- 
sessed Samaria  and  dwelt  in  the  cities  thereof."  (2  Kings 
xvii.  24.) 

With  the  kingdom  of  Judah  were  some  representatives  of  the 
ten  tribes,  who  had  cast  in  their  lot  with  it,  in  the  dark  days 
of  Israel's  idolatrous  defection,  but  this  territory  had  also  been 
cut  short  by  the  revolt  of  Edom,  the  falling  away  of  Simeon 
on  the  south,  and  the  possession  by  foreign  powers  of  the  cities 
of  the  Philistine  plain. 

From  the  date  of  the  first  invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
(B.  c.  606)  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  became  a  province  of 


History  and  Associations  55 

Babylon,  and  many  of  the  people  were  carried  away  into 
captivity.  The  revolt  of  Zedckiah,  the  last  ruler  of  this  king- 
dom (B.  c.  587)  brought  down  upon  him  a  swift  retribution 
resulting  in  the  utter  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  deporta- 
tion of  the  greater  part  of  the  population.  The  remnant  which 
remained  tilled  the  fields  and  dwelt  in  the  ruined  cities  of  Judah 
for  seventy  years.  Meanwhile  the  Babylonian  empire  fell  and 
the  victorious  Persian  conquerors  extended  their  dominion  far 
beyond  the  original  bounds  of  the  old  Assyrian  empire.  With 
the  sanction,  and  under  the  protection  of  Cyrus  and  his  suc- 
cessors, the  Jews  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  land,  occupy 
their  former  possessions,  and  rebuild  their  temple  and  ruined 
cities.  For  200  years  they  dwelt  securely  under  the  protecto- 
rate of  the  Persian  empire,  increasing  rapidly  in  population, 
wealth  and  influence.  Then  followed  in  succession  the  short 
period  of  the  Macedonian  supremacy  (332-321)  ;  the  period 
of  the  Egyptian  supremacy — under  the  Ptolemies,  or  Greek 
rulers  of  Egypt,  lasting  for  123  years  (321-198)  ;  the  period  of 
the  Maccabees,  or  independent  rulers  (166-64)  ;  and  the  period 
of  Roman  supremacy  (B.  c.  64-A.  D.  614). 

3.  The  Gentile  Period. — The  national  life  of  the  Hebrews 
ended  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  70.  From  this 
time  until  now  they  have  remained  a  distinct  people,  scattered 
among  all  the  nations ;  and  yet  without  a  Ruler  or  a  Country 
they  could  call  their  own.  A  feeble  remnant,  which  survived 
the  horrors  of  the  war  with  Titus,  made  a  desperate  effort, 
under  the  leadership  of  Simon  (Bar  Cocheba),  a  pretended 
Messiah,  some  fifty  years  later,  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Rome 
but  miserably  failed.  The  result  was  a  wholesale  prescription 
and  banishment  by  order  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  from  the 
land  of  their  fathers.  From  this  date  Palestine  became  a 
Roman  colony  in  which  the  Jew  had  neither  part  nor  lot. 

In  614  A.  D.  the  whole  of  Syria  was  severed  from  the 
Roman  empire  by  the  Persians. 

A  few  years  later  (A.  D.  636)  it  came  under  the  dominion 


56 


The  Land  of  Israel 


of  the  Moslem  hordes  from  the  desert.  For  more  than  1,000 
years  following  the  Holy  Land  of  the  Hebrew  and  the  Christian 
has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  or  their  successors,  and 
co-religionists,  the  Turks.  The  one  notable  interruption  of 
Moslem  rule  was  the  period — lasting  for  nearly  a  century 
(1098-1187) — in  which  it  was  conquered  and  held  by  the 
Christian  Crusaders.  They  have  left  the  impress  of  their  brief 
occupation  in  ruined  monasteries  and  churches  all  over  the 
western  portion  of  the  land. 

A  deeper  and  more  abiding  impression,  however,  has  been 
left  upon  the  land  by  the  centuries  of  Greek  and  Roman 
occupation.  The  evidences  of  Graeco-Roman  civilization, 
literature  and  life  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  country,  but 
especially  in  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan.  Here  amid  the 
ruins  of  great  cities  may  be  seen  the  remains  of  temples,  forums, 
triumphal  arches,  gateways,  bridges,  aqueducts,  colonnaded 
streets,  amphitheatres,  beautifully  wrought  columns  and  capi- 
tals, and  many  wonderful  works  of  art,  both  elaborate  and 
delicate.  On  this  side  of  the  Jordan  not  less  than  500  miles  of 
solid  Roman  roads  have  been  traced.  Here  too  in  mosaic 
pavements,  broken  fragments  of  pottery,  long  lost  coins  of 
Roman  emperors  and  free  Greek  cities,  have  been  found  the 
data  for  more  accurate  information  with  respect  to  time  and 
place  than  that  which  has  been  transmitted  to  us  by  the  pen  of 
the  classic  historian.  To  the  history  of  the  early  Christian 
Church  a  new  and  most  interesting  chapter  has  been  added, 
also,  from  the  numerous  emblems  and  inscriptions  unearthed 
here  and  there,  which  were  traced  on  basalt  slabs,  rock  tombs 
or  marble  tablets  in  the  dark  days  of  persecution  and  mar- 
tyrdom. 

Between  some  of  these  cities,  in  which  Greek  culture  was 
protected  and  encouraged  by  the  might  and  majesty  of  Rome, 
may  still  be  seen,  in  places,  the  solid  rock  bed  of  the  old  road- 
ways, deeply  grooved  by  the  chariot  wheel ;  or  the  mile  stone 
with  its  accurate  record  of  distance  from  point  to  point.  It  is  A 


History  and  Associations  &'? 

significant  fact  that  the  messengers  of  the  gospel  carried  over 
Roman  roads,  from  Jerusalem  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  a  mes- 
sage to  all  nations  and  for  all  time,  which  was  written  in  the 
beautiful,    flexible,    and   almost  universally  disseminated  ..an 
guage  of  the  Greeks. 

These  monuments  of  the  Christian  age,  like  tnose  of  in.? 
earlier  days,   may  now  be  read  alongside  of  the  recui 
Sacred  history ;  and  with  wonderful  unanimity  they  bear  testi- 
mony to  its  accuracy  of  historical  and  geographical  statement. 

Sacred  Associations. — Preeminent  among  all  the  things 
which  abide,  and  more  indestructible  than  the  framework  of 
its  everlasting  hills,  are  the  sacred  associations  interwoven  with 
the  history  of  the  land  of  Israel.  It  has  been  brought  into 
close  relations,  at  some  time  in  its  wonderful  history,  with 
every  great  nation  of  the  Ancient  or  Roman  world,  but  from 
none  of  these  associations  does  it  derive  its  peculiar  charm  or 
its  distinguishing  glory.  It  stands  apart  from  all  as  the  "  Holy 
Land";  because  here  as  nowhere  else,  the  Almighty  has 
manifested  His  glory  and  unfolded  His  purpose  of  redeeming 
grace.  "  Its  hills  and  valleys  have  been  transfigured  by  mean- 
ings and  mysteries  mightier  than  physical  influences,"  and  over 
it  all  there  shines  a  light  that  fades  not  but  grows  richer  and 
more  radiant  with  the  ages.1 

It  is  the  land  of  the  Patriarchs ;  of  the  Prophets ;  of  the 
Sacred  Poets ;  of  the  Apostles ;  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  a 
host  of  saintly  men  and  women  whose  names  are  familiar  to  us 
as  household  words.  But  more  than  all  it  is  the  land  where 
the  Son  of  God  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  men. 

"  Here  lie  those  holy  fields, 
O'er  whose  acres  walked  those  blessed  feet 
Which  «  1900  '  years  ago  were  nailed 
For  our  advantage  to  the  bitter  cross." 

From  this  land,  long  trodden  under  foot  of  the  Gentiles,  over 
i  Fairbairn's  Studies  of  Christ. 


58 


The  Land  of  Israel 


which  the  gloomy  shadows  of  the  dark  ages  yet  linger — has 
gone  forth  an  influence  more  potent  than  ever  came  from 
schools  of  philosophers  or  the  collected  wisdom  of  the  ancients. 
That  influence  to-day  is  ruling  the  world.  There  are  many 
mountains  celebrated  in  story  and  song,  but  there  is  only  one 
Mount  Zion,  one  Olivet,  one  Calvary,  go  where  we  may. 
There  are  many  interesting  cities  of  antiquity,  which  men  have 
travelled  weary  miles  to  see,  but  there  is  only  one  Bethlehem 
and  one  Jerusalem  in  all  the  world. 

These  sites  are  sacred  above  all  else  because  they  have  been 
touched  by  the  beautiful  feet  of  Him  who  brought  good  tidings 
and  published  peace.  "  It  is  historically  incontrovertible  that 
in  Palestine  appeared  He  whose  precept,  example  and  pierced 
right  hand  have  lifted  heathenism  off  its  hinges  and  turned  into 
new  channels  the  course  of  human  thought."  1 

1  The  Testimony  of  the  Land  to  the  Book,  Dr.  Gregg,  p.  lo. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  TESTIMONY  OF  THE  LAND  TO  THE  BOOK 

IN  recent  years  the  evidential  value  of  sacred  geography  has 
been  recognized  and  emphasized  as  never  before. 

In  the  "  New  Apologetic  "  of  the  Christian  faith  this  study,  in 
connection  with  its  kindred  branches  of  archaeological  science, 
has  already  risen  to  a  place  of  prominence,  as  a  supplemental 
evidence  to  the  historical  accuracy  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment narratives.  The  close  correspondence  between  the  lo- 
cality avowedly  chosen  of  God  for  the  unfolding  of  His  pur- 
pose of  grace  and  the  Book  in  which  this  revelation  is  made 
known,  can  only  be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  both  owe 
their  origin  to  the  same  intelligent  cause,  and  have  been  pre- 
pared and  adapted  for  a  predetermined  end.  "  No  fable,  how- 
ever cunningly  devised,  no  myth  or  legend  coming  into  existence 
at  a  later  age,  could  have  adapted  itself  so  precisely  to  the  topo- 
graphical details  of  the  scene."  l  Its  framework  is  the  setting 
of  the  Bible,  and  wherever  tested  it  has  been  found  that  the  one 
answers  to  the  other  as  the  die  to  its  impress. 

In  such  works  as  the  "Researches"  of  Dr.  Robinson  or 
"  The  Land  and  the  Book  "  by  Dr.  Thompson,  who  spent  more 
than  forty  years  of  his  active  life  amid  the  scenes  he  has  so 
graphically  depicted,  there  are  proofs  and  illustrations  of  a  cor- 
respondence so  minute  and  striking  that  it  is  scarcely  possible 
for  a  candid  mind  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  both  were  made 
to  fit  together  into  one  unique  and  grandly  comprehensive 
plan. 

Nor  are  we  surprised,  in  view  of  these  impressive  facts, 
that  Renan,  a  noted  leader  and  representative  of  the  broadest 
i Dr.  Manning  «  Those  Holy  Fields,"  p.  3. 

68 


60 


The  Land  of  Israel 


school  of  skeptical  thought,  should  join  his  testimony  on  this 
point  with  that  of  the  most  devout  and  conservative  scholars  of 
his  day,  after  an  experience  of  two  or  more  years  of  travel  and 
research  in  the  heart  of  Palestine. 

"  I  have  traversed,"  he  says,  "  in  all  directions  the  country  of  the  Gos- 
pels. I  have  visited  Jerusalem,  Hebron  and  Samaria ;  scarcely  any  im- 
portant locality  of  the  history  of  Jesus  has  escaped  me.  All  this  history, 
which  at  a  distance  seems  to  float  in  the  clouds  of  an  unreal  world,  thus 
took  a  form,  a  solidity  which  astonished  me.  The  striking  agreement  of 
the  texts  with  the  places,  the  marvellous  harmony  of  the  gospel  ideal  with 
the  country  which  served  it  as  a  framework,  were  like  a  revelation  to  me. 
I  had  before  my  eyes  a  fifth  gospel,  torn,  but  still  legible."1 

In  an  admirable  article  on  the  connection  of  sacred  history 
and  sacred  geography  Dean  Stanley  clearly  defines  the  value 
and  pertinence  of  this  testimony,  in  its  application  to  the  Old 
Testament  as  well  as  to  the  New. 

"  The  question  which  the  geographer  of  the  Holy  Land,  which  the  his- 
torian of  the  chosen  people  has  to  propose  to  himself  is,  '  Can  such  a  con- 
nection be  traced  between  the  scenery,  the  features,  the  boundaries,  the 
situation  of  Sinai  and  of  Palestine,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  history  of  the 
Israelites  on  the  other  ?  '  It  may  be  that  there  is  much  in  one  part  of 
their  history,  and  little  in  another ;  least  of  all  in  its  close,  more  in  the 
middle  part,  most  of  all  in  its  early  beginnings.  But  whatever  be  the 
true  answer,  it  cannot  be  indifferent  to  any  one  who  wishes — whether 
from  the  divine  or  human,  from  the  theological  or  the  historical  point  of 
view — to  form  a  complete  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble nation  which  has  appeared  on  the  earth.  If  the  grandeur  and  soli- 
tude of  Sinai  was  a  fitting  preparation  for  the  reception  of  the  decalogue 
and  for  the  second  birth  of  an  infant  nation ;  if  Palestine,  by  its  central 
situation,  by  its  separation  from  the  great  civilized  powers  of  the  eastern 
world,  and  by  its  contrast  of  scenery  and  resources  both  with  the  desert 
and  with  the  Egyptian  and  Mesopotamian  empires,  presents  a  natural 
home  for  the  chosen  people ;  if  its  local  features  are  such  as  in  any  way 
constitute  it  the  cradle  of  a  faith  that  was  intended  to  be  universal ;  its 
geography  is  not  without  interest,  in  this  its  most  general  aspect,  both  for 
the  philosopher  and  theologian."  2 

1  The  life  of  Jesus  by  Renan,  pp.  30,  31. 

'Preface  to  Sinai  and  Palestine,  pp.  15,  16. 


Testimony  of  the  Land  to  the  Book        61 

We  cannot,  as  yet,  give  a  full  and  complete  answer  to  the 
question  proposed  by  Dean  Stanley :  for  all  the  evidence  is  not 
yet  before  us,  but  it  is  surely  a  significant  fact  that  up  to  this 
hour  it  all  points  to  one  definite  conclusion. 

"There  are,"  says  Major  Conder,  "more  than  840  places  noticed  in  the 
Bible  which  were  either  in  Palestine  or  the  desert  of  Beersheba  and  Sinai, 
and  of  these  nearly  three-quarters  have  now  been  discovered  and  marked 
on  maps."  Omitting  those  which  may  in  any  sense  be  doubtful — and 
these  for  the  most  part  are  unimportant  or  have  bare  mention  in  the 
record — it  cannot  be  said  of  one  that  remains  that  its  local  features  are  out 
of  harmony  with  the  history  connected  with  its  name. 

The  substance  of  the  argument  based  on  the  foregoing  facts 
has  been  tersely  stated  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gregg  of  New  York, 
in  a  charming  little  book,  which  is  commended  to  all  who  are 
interested  in  this  phase  of  the  study  of  sacred  geography.  In 
the  development  of  this  argument,  he  says : 

"  The  Book  weaves  the  physical  features  of  the  land  into  its  statements. 
It  does  this  fearlessly.  It  does  this  knowing  that  it  can  be  refuted  if  its 
references  are  false  or  inaccurate.  No  book  in  all  the  literature  of  the 
world  has  as  honest  a  face  as  the  Bible.  Impostors  avoid  details  and  keep 
to  general  statements,  taking  care  to  introduce  no  names,  places,  distances, 
which  might  serve  to  betray  the  fraud  and  publish  the  imposition.  But 
the  Bible  in  almost  every  chapter  stands  committed  on  all  of  these  points. 
Its  narratives  are  accompanied  with  all  the  minute  circumstances  of  time 
and  place  and  situation  and  distance.  Thus  the  sacred  writers  commit 
themselves  with  perfect  fearlessness  to  statements  always  avoided  in 
apocryphal  writings  and  which  could  be  easily  disproved  if  untrue.  Yet 
in  no  single  instance  has  geographical  incorrectness  been  detected.  Each 
new  traveller  is  adding  fresh  confirmation  to  the  precision  and  accuracy 
of  the  Book."  1 

The  well  known  author,  Walter  Besant,  Hon.  Secretary  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  has  recently  given  a  remark- 
able presentment  of  a  like  view,  based  upon  the  general  work  of 
this  society  and  its  adjuncts,  during  the  twenty-five  years  of  his 
official  connection  with  the  inner  circle  of  its  activf  management. 
1 "  The  Testimony  of  the  Land  to  the  Book,"  Dr.  regg. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"  I  have  been  often  asked,"  he  says,  "  whether  these  researches  actually 
prove  the  historical  part  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  a  difficult  question 
to  answer.  Suppose,  however,  we  were  to  discover  a  papyrus  two  thou- 
sand or  three  thousand  years  old,  containing  a  history,  fragmentary  in 
part,  and  in  part  full  and  connected,  covering  many  hundreds  of  years. 
Suppose  we  were,  without  any  prejudice  against  the  authenticity  of  this 
history,  or  any  presumption  in  its  favor,  to  discover  on  examination  thai 
we  could  assign  any  single  event  recorded  in  the  narrative  exactly  to  the 
ground  on  which  it  was  said  to  have  taken  place.  Suppose  further,  we 
could  prove  that  the  event  must,  from  the  conformation  of  the  ground, 
have  taken  place  on  that  spot  and  on  no  other.  Suppose  we  could  prove 
that  the  writer  of  the  history  had  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  place  he  was 
describing ;  and  that  if  there  were  twenty  writers  every  one  of  them  had 
also  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  country,  would  not  these  facts  go  very 
far  indeed  to  make  us  believe  in  the  truth  of  this  history  ?  Well,  such  is 
exactly  what  we  have  proved  for  the  historical  books  of  the  Bible.  Such 
and  no  more.  If  we  are  asked  to  argue  for  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible, 
we  reply  that  this  is  another  branch  of  inquiry  altogether,  and  that  we 
leave  it  for  those  who  are  capable  of  undertaking  it. 

"  Again,  to  use  another  familiar  and  homely  illustration,  many  men  and 
women  in  these  days  practice  the  art  of  fiction.  It  is  in  that  art  a  recog- 
nized and  well  understood  rule  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe  what  you 
have  not  seen  ;  so  that  if  you  are  going  to  describe  a  house,  a  piece  of 
scenery,  a  country,  you  must  go  there  and  describe  it  from  personal  knowl- 
edge, or,  at  least,  from  the  personal  knowledge  of  some  one  who  will  de- 
scribe it  for  you.  For  instance,  one  of  these  literary  persons,  a  few  years 
ago,  was  proposing  to  write  a  novel  which  required  an  exact  knowledge 
of  the  county  of  Northumberland.  He  obtained  this  knowledge  by  four 
journeys  in  the  district ;  he  walked  from  end  to  end  of  the  county,  and 
saw  everything  there  is  to  be  seen  in  it ;  until  he  had  done  this  he  found 
it  impossible  to  begin  his  work.  Here  is  a  modern  instance — a  trivial 
instance — of  the  necessity  of  local  knowledge  for  a  historian. 

"  It  shows  with  what  care  and  trouble  truth  of  detail  must  be  acquired. 
To  my  mind  absolute  truth  in  local  details — a  thing  "which  cannot  possibly 
be  invented,  when  it  is  spread  over  a  history  covering  many  centuries — is 
proof  almost  absolute  as  to  the  truth  of  the  thing  related"  ' 

With  such  testimony  before  us,  it  must  be  evident  to  every 
thoughtful  man  that  we  have  in  this  study  "  no  common  lesson 

>  The  City  and  the  Land,  pp.  121-3. 


Testimony  of  the  Land  to  the  Book        63 

of  earth's  geography."  The  conviction  which  has  directed  the 
feet  of  countless  hosts  toward  this  Holy  Land  for  long  ages ; 
which  has  stirred  the  enlightened  nations  of  Europe  to  emulous 
activity  in  keeping  watch  and  ward  over  its  sacred  places ; 
which  to  such  an  extraordinary  degree  has  awakened  and  held 
the  attention  of  the  literary  and  scientific  world  in  an  age  so 
practical  as  ours ;  which  has  made  it  by  common  assent  the 
theme  of  Christian  poetry  and  song,  and  the  type  of  all  that  is 
beautiful  and  good  in  the  better  country  beyond — does  not  rest 
upon  a  passing  fancy  or  a  tissue  of  cunningly  devised  fables. 
The  marvellous  adaptation  of  the  land — as  we  see  it  to-day — 
to  all  the  conditions  of  its  marvellous  history ;  its  exceptional 
physical  features ;  its  typical  universality,  its  double  relation  of 
exclusion  from,  and  ready  intercommunication  with  the  na- 
tions; its  manifest  correspondence  of  places  with  the  events 
described,  and  its  silent  witness  to  scores  of  prophetic  judg- 
ments long  ago  uttered,  but  still  preserved  in  the  volume  of  the 
Book, — cannot  in  the  nature  of  things,  have  been  coincidences 
or  accidents  of  geographical  position. 


PART  II 

Sectional  View  of  the  Land 


In  the  preceding  chapters  a  general  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
Holy  Land  has  been  presented.  In  the  study  of  its  special 
features,  at  close  range,  the  most  satisfactory  outline  of  division 
and  subdivision  is  suggested  by  its  physical  geography.  It  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Biblical  names  and  descriptions  of 
the  minor  divisions  of  the  country  accord  with  this  outline,  and 
hence  are  still  our  best  guides  in  the  study  and  identification  of 
the  several  sections  of  this  wonderfully  diversified  land.  With 
scarcely  an  exception,  they  are  indicative  of  some  peculiarity  of 
position  or  feature  which  distinguishes  them  from  contiguous 
sections. 

In  the  political  or  provincial  divisions,  which  have  come 
down  to  us  with  but  slight  changes  since  the  days  of  Roman 
occupation,  this  conformity  to  the  natural  features  of  the 
country  is  only  found  where  it  falls  in  with  other  considerations 
of  policy  or  statecraft,  which  were  regarded  as  more  important. 
For  this  reason  we  seek  in  the  older  history  the  real  boundaries 
of  Israel's  possession,  and  the  best  analysis  of  its  characteristic 
features. 

As  the  starting  point  of  this  analysis  we  shall  take  up  in 
succession  each  of  the  four  longitudinal  strips  or  sections  into 
which  the  country  is  naturally  divided  as  already  indicated  in 
the  general  outlook.  (Chapter  I.,  p.  20.) 

These  are  the  Maritime  plain,  the  parallel  mountain  ranges 
of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the  deeply  cleft  valley 
which  lies  between  them. 

64 


Lebanon 
CoelG  Syria, 

and 

L ebano 


The  First  Longitudinal  Section 
CHAPTER  IX 

THE  MARITIME  PLAIN  NORTH  OF  MOUNT  CARMEL 

THIS  long  and  narrow  strip  of  seacoast  territory  is  sepa- 
rated into  two  portions,  known  as  the  plains  of  Phoenicia  and 
Acre,  by  the  Ladder  of  Tyre. 

The  Ladder  of  Tyre  is  a  famous  headland,  or  lateral  off- 
shoot from  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  which  projects  into  the 
sea  for  a  distance  of  two  miles.  This  projection  is  seven  miks 
in  width  and  consists  of  three  contiguous  capes. 

"  The  first  is  Ras  el  Abyad,  which  does  not  project  into  the  sea  more 
than  a  mile  beyond  the  general  line  of  the  coast ;  the  second  is  Ras  en 
Nakurah,  the  real  ladder  or  Scala  Tyriorum,  and  the  last  is  Ras  el  Mush- 
eirifeh,  which  is  the  highest  of  all,  and  shows  boldest  toward  the  sea,  and 
hence  has  often  been  confounded  with  the  true  « Scala.' "  * 

Two  bold  headlands  of  similar  character,  but  of  lesser  pro- 
portions, interrupt  the  continuity  of  the  plain  northward.  The 
one  shuts  in  the  course  of  the  river  Lycus  to  the  south  and  the 
other  blocks  the  way  between  Tripolis  and  Byblus.  These 
natural  obstacles  were  impassable  to  armies  until  surmounted 
by  the  engineering  skill  of  the  early  Babylonian  and  Egyptian 
invaders. 

I.     THE  PHOENICIAN  PLAIN 

This  plain  extends  from  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon  to  the 
ladder  of  Tyre.  It  is  about  120  miles  in  length  and  varies 
from  two  to  fifteen  in  width. 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  II.  p.  266. 
65 


66 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"  The  coast  line  of  the  region,"  says  Rawlinson,  "  though  not  deeply 
indented,  was  sufficiently  irregular  to  furnish  a  number  of  tolerable  har- 
bors ;  and  when  art  was  called  in  to  assist  nature,  it  was  found  fairly  easy 
to  construct  ports,  which,  according  to  ancient  ideas,  left  little  to  be  de- 
sired." 

While  the  abundance  of  the  sea  was  the  chief  source  of  ma- 
terial prosperity  to  the  Phoenicians,  their  scant  territory  was 
wonderfully  rich  in  the  number  and  variety  of  its  productions. 
Close  to  the  sea  was  a  sandy  belt,  which  was  admirably  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  the  date-palm.  So  luxuriant  was  its  growth 
in  this  region  that  it  received  from  the  Greeks,  in  ancient  times, 
the  name  Phoenicia  or  Palm  Land. 

Inside  the  Palm  belt  was  a  fertile,  well-watered  strip  of  terri- 
tory, cultivated  with  great  care,  which  varied  in  width  from  one 
to  ten  miles.  Along  this  tract  may  still  be  traced  by  their  ruined 
heaps  a  succession  of  cities  and  villages.  These,  like  the  towns 
now  occupied,  were  once  surrounded  by  orchards  and  gardens. 

Back  of  this  cultivated  tract  was  a  stretch  of  low  hills,  the 
foot-hills  of  Lebanon,  which  were  well  adapted  to  the  culture 
of  the  olive,  mulberry  and  vine.  This  region  belonged  partly 
to  the  mountain  and  partly  to  the  plain,  but  was  occupied  by 
the  Phoenicians,  and  may  properly  be  included  in  the  lowland 
section. 

Five  noted  streams  cross  this  plain  on  their  way  to  the  sea. 
These  are : 

(1)  The  Eleutherus  (Nahr  el-Kebir)  which  drains  the 
great  plain  of  Akkar  at  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon,  known 
in  Scripture  phraseology  as  the  "  entering  in  of  Hamath." 

Strictly  speaking,  this  river  marks  the  northern  limit  of  the 
Phoenician  plain. 

(2)  The  Adonis,  associated  with  the  well-known  mytho- 
logical fable  of  the  classics. 

(3)  The  Lycus,  or  Dog  river  at  the  mouth  of  which  are 
the  inscribed  tablets  of  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  conquerors. 
(See  page  44.) 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     67 

(4)  The  Bostrenus  or  Awaly,  which  supplied  the  old 
city  of  Sidon  and  its  environs  with  water. 

(5)  The  Litany,  or  Kasimiyeh,  the  largest  and  most  no- 
table of  all  the  rivers  which  water  the  plain  of  Phoenicia.     Its 
source   and   general    direction   have   already  been    indicated 
(page  19).     It  enters  the  sea  five  miles  north  of  Tyre,  and  is 
usually  regarded  as  the  limit  northward  of  Palestine  proper. 

The  local  subdivisions  of  this  plain  are  known  as  the  plains 
of  Tripoli,  Berytus  (Beirut),  Sidon  and  Tyre. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Of  these  the  most  important  only  can 
be  noted. 

Tripolis  or  Tripoli  (Tarablus)  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
border  of  the  small  plain  of  the  same  name  nearly  thirty  miles 
south  of  the  Eleutherus  river  (Latitude  34°  26').  It  was  col- 
onized by  three  cities, — Sidon,  Tyre  and  Arvad.  The  colon- 
ists, it  is  said,  originally  occupied  separate  quarters ;  hence  the 
name  Tripolis  or  triple  city.  The  Kadisha,  or  sacred  river, 
coming  down  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Cedars,  passes  through 
the  city.  It  is  famous  for  the  wealth  and  beauty  of  its  groves  and 
gardens,  which  not  only  surround  the  city,  but  stretch  across 
the  plain,  two  miles  in  width,  lying  between  it  and  the  sea. 
The  ancient  city,  which  lays  claim  to  great  antiquity,  was  much 
nearer  the  sea.  It  has  no  associations  with  Biblical  history  un- 
less it  be,  as  some  suppose,  "the  place  of  the  Zemarites  "  men- 
tioned in  Genesis  x.  18.  Tripolis  was  a  stronghold  of  the 
Crusaders  for  180  years,  and  was  one  of  the  last  which  surren- 
dered to  the  Saracens.  On  a  neighboring  hill  is  the  well  pre- 
served ruin  of  the  celebrated  castle  built  by  Count  Raymond 
of  Toulouse. 

The  present  population  is  quoted  at  25,000.  In  virtue  of  its 
position,  spacious  harbor,  and  natural  advantages,  it  is  already 
indicated  on  the  survey  chart  as  the  terminus  of  the  projected 
railroad  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  If  this  project  should 
be  realized,  it  may  yet  rival  the  most  prosperous  of  the  old  mer- 
chant cities  of  the  Phoenician  plain.  A  good  carriage  road 


68  The  Land  of  Israel 

connects  Tripolis  with  Hums  and  Hamath,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Orontes. 

Tell  Arka,  about  ten  miles  north  of  Tripolis,  marks  the 
probable  site  of  a  city  of  the  Arkites.  (Gen.  x.  17.) 

Gebal. — Jebail  is  the  modern  Arabic  name  for  the  city  called 
Byblos  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  evidently  the  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Gebal.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  7 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  9.) 

Gebal  was  situated  on  a  round  hill  close  to  the  shore,  thirty 
miles  south  of  Tripolis.  Its  residents  were  called  Giblites  or 
"  Stone-squarers,"  in  Joshua  xiii.  5  and  i  Kings  v.  17,  18. 
They  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  hewing  and  squaring 
stone,  ship  building,  etc.  They  assisted  in  the  construction  of 
the  foundation  work  of  Solomon's  temple,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  huge  stones  recently  uncovered  in  some  portions  of 
the  encircling  wall  of  the  temple  area  were  fashioned  by  their 
hands. 

In  the  collection  from  Tell  Amarna,  there  are  thirteen  letters 
from  the  Egyptian  Governor  in  Gebal  to  the  reigning  Pharoah 
of  Egypt,  and  the  name  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions. 

Gebal  was  sacred  to  Adonis  and  near  to  it  were  celebrated 
some  of  the  grossly  immoral  rites,  which  characterized  both  the 
earlier  and  later  forms  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Canaan- 
ite  nations.  "Mourning  for  Adonis,"  says  Dr.  Thompson, 
"  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  weeping  for  Tammuz,  re- 
ferred to  in  Ezekiel  viii.  14."  l 

From  the  port  of  Gebal,  cedars  were  floated  in  rafts  to  Joppa, 
the  seaport  of  Jerusalem,  for  the  temple  of  Solomon.  There 
is  a  road  over  the  mountains  from  Jebail  to  Baalbec  in  the 
Ccele-Syria  Valley. 

Beirut — the  Berytus  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans — is  de- 
lightfully situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  a  projecting  head- 
land, twenty-three  miles  south  of  Jebail.  A  gracefully  curved 
bay  opens  out  to  the  sea  on  its  front ;  while  behind  the  plain, 
1  The  Land  and  the  Book — Phoenicia,  p.  609. 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     69 

which  at  this  point  is  six  or  eight  miles  in  width,  rises,  in  a 
series  of  ascending  terraces,  a  matchless  background  of  pine 
covered  ledges,  beetling  cliffs,  and  snow  crowned  heights. 

One  who  has  seen  this  rare  combination  of  sea  and  plain  and 
mountain-side  from  the  most  favorable  view-points  is  not  likely 
to  forget  the  picture  while  life  or  memory  lasts.  "  In  the  'plain 
of  Berytus,'  "  says  Rawlinson,  "the  beauty  and  fertility  of 
Phoenicia  culminate ;  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  of  all  the 
Phoenician  cities  Beirut  should  alone  have  maintained  its  pros- 
perity." In  the  Tell  Amarna  tablets  this  city  is  mentioned 
along  with  other  ancient  cities  of  the  coast,  under  the  name  of 
Beruta.  This  is  the  first  distinct  proof  of  its  early  origin.  It 
did  not  come  into  prominence  in  later  times  until  the  age  of  the 
Maccabees,  but  it  is  now  the  most  enterprising  and  enlightened 
of  all  the  cities  of  Syria.  It  has  macademized  streets,  modern 
methods  of  living  and  transportation,  substantially  built  resi- 
dences and  an  exceptionally  large  number  of  handsome  churches 
and  mosques,  colleges  and  schools.  The  Syrian  Protestant  Col- 
lege founded  by  the  friends  of  the  American  mission,  is  one  of 
the  finest  buildings  in  the  city  and  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the 
literary  institutions  of  the  country.  The  population  of  Beirut 
has  increased  from  20,000  in  1860  to  over  100,000.  No  Bibli- 
cal associations  are  suggested  by  its  name ;  but  it  is  the  recog- 
nized educational  metropolis  of  western  Asia,  and  the  centre 
of  missionary  agencies  and  operations  throughout  the  Arabic- 
speaking  population  of  the  East. 

A  good  carriage  road  and  a  recently  constructed  railroad 
connect  Beirut  with  Damascus. 

Sidon,  or  Saida  as  it  is  termed  in  modern  Arabic,  is  situated 
on  a  low  promontory,  or  spur  of  Lebanon  which  juts  out  a  few 
hundred  yards  into  the  sea.  It  is  twenty-seven  miles  south  of 
Beirut  and  eighteen  north  of  the  Litany  river.  "Three  reefs 
or  low  ridges  of  rock  running  parallel  with  the  shore,  with  nar- 
row openings  between  them,  offered  the  nucleus  of  a  harbor, 
which  Zidonian  art  converted  after  awhile  into  a  small  but  safe 


70 


The  Land  of  Israel 


harbor."  *  The  Awaly  or  Bostrenus,  enters  the  sea  two  miles 
above  the  city  and  from  time  immemorial  has  been  utilized  to 
irrigate  the  gardens  and  orchards  which  extend  southward  from 
it  to  the  city,  and  form  a  broad  belt  of  living  green  around  it. 
These  luxuriant  gardens  gave  to  it  in  classic  times  the  appella- 
tion of  "  Flowery  Sidon  "  :  and  to-day,  as  in  the  past,  they  are 
the  glory  of  the  city  and  plain.  Here  the  orange,  lemon,  apri- 
cot, pomegranate,  banana  and  palm  seem  to  find  every  condi- 
tion favorable  to  luxuriant  growth  and  abundant  fruitage. 

Sidon  is  the  oldest  of  the  chief  cities  of  Phoenicia.  It  has 
maintained  its  hold  on  the  site,  where  according  to  Josephus,  it 
was  located  by  Sidon,  the  grandson  of  Noah,  and  from  that  time 
until  now  has  had,  with  all  its  reverses,  a  continuous  history. 

Isaiah  speaks  of  it  as  the  mother  of  Tyre  (xxiii.  1 2) :  and 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Joshua  it  was  called  "great  Sidon." 
(Joshua  xi.  8  and  xix.  28.)  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  songs  of  Homer :  and  at  this  period  its  residents  were 
already  famous  among  the  nations  for  their  skill  in  artistic  and 
ornamental  handiwork. 

Originally  a  fishing  port  by  the  sea,  it  became  in  time  the 
cradle  of  the  world's  commerce.  Within  the  historic  period  it 
held  the  second  place  in  importance  among  the  cities  of  Phoe- 
nicia, but  never  had  the  advantage  of  a  seaport  like  that  of 
Tyre. 

In  one  of  the  mulberry  gardens  near  the  city  several  copper 
pots  containing  gold  coins  with  the  stamp  of  Alexander  and  of 
his  father  Philip,  were  found  a  few  years  ago  by  native  work- 
men. Only  two  were  recovered  by  the  authorities,  yet  these 
contained  between  two  and  three  thousand  coins  of  pure  gold 
worth  about  five  dollars  each.  The  whole  amount  of  thi.^  long- 
buried  treasure — hidden  in  the  field — was  estimated  at  £200,- 
ooo. 2  Researches  in  the  necropolis  of  Sidon  have  brought  to 
light  several  sarcophagi,  two  of  which  are  surpassingly  beauti- 

1  Rawlinson's  Phoenicia,  p.  46. 

8  The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  II.,  p.  639. 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     71 

ful  in  design  and  workmanship.     One  has  a  life-like  figure  of 
Alexander  the  Great  mounted  upon  a  splendid  charger. 

"  It  bears,"  says  Dr.  De  Long,  "  the  undoubted  portrait  of  Alexander, 
easily  recognized  by  every  one  who  has  ever  held  in  his  hand  one  of  the 
best  coins,  or  medallions,  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror.  This  magnifi- 
cent tomb,  worthy  of  him  or  any  other  monarch  who  ever  lived,  has  re- 
ceived by  general  popular  consent  the  name  of  the  Alexander  tomb." 

The  best  authorities  do  not  accord  with  this  popular  verdict, 
however,  and  the  probabilities  are  on  the  ^ide  of  those  who 
claim  that  it  was  constructed  as  a  memorial  of  one  of  the  noted 
generals,  or  favorites  of  Alexander. 

The  Rev.  Canon  Curtis  brings  forward  some  strong  evidence 
in  support  of  the  supposition  that  it  is  a  memorial  to  Clitus  who 
saved  Alexander's  life  at  the  battle  of  Granicus ;  and  that  the 
battle  scene  so  vividly  represented  on  the  monument  has  for  its 
central  figure  the  hero  of  this  timely  rescue.1 

This  valuable  collection  of  sarcophagi,  numbering  eighteen 
in  all,  is  preserved  among  the  art  treasures  of  the  Imperial  Mu- 
seum at  Constantinople. 

In  the  Louvre  is  a  royal  tomb  of  red  syenite,  found  near 
Sidon,  in  1855.  It  has  on  its  face  an  inscription  of  twenty-two 
lines,  which  furnishes  one  of  the  important  links  in  the  chain 
of  evidence  establishing  the  close  connection  between  the  Phoe- 
nician and  Hebrew  alphabets. 

In  the  Old  Testament  there  are  frequent  references  to  Sidon 
and  its  inhabitants.  Some  of  the  most  suggestive  are, — Gen. 
x.  19,  xlix.  13;  Josh.  xix.  28;  Judg.  i.  31,  x.  6;  Isa.  xxiii.  12; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  8,  xxviii.  21,  22. 

On  His  last  northward  journey  Jesus  visited  the  coasts  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  He  entered  this  city 
also.  Says  Canon  Tristram  : 

"  His  fame  had  already  reached  Phoenicia,  and  probably  He  had  many 
disciples  in  these  heathen  cities.  (Luke  vi.  17.)  The  negotiations  of 

i  Pal.  Exp.  Quarterly,  April,  1894. 


72 


The  Land  of  Israel 


Tyre  and  Sidon  with  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  and  the  visit  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
believers  there,  complete  the  New  Testament  incidents  connected  with 
Sidon."  i 

Zarephath.  —  The  city  of  Zarephath,  —  the  Sarepta  of  the 
New  Testament  (Luke  iv.  26)  —  was  on  the  coast  road  almost 
midway  between  Sidon  and  Tyre.  The  modern  village  of  Sara- 
fend  is  usually  identified  with  it,  but  the  true  site  is  nearer  the 
sea,  where  broken  columns  and  scattered  fragments  of  ruined 
buildings,  extending  for  a  mile  or  more  along  the  shore,  attest 
the  existence  in  former  days  of  a  town  of  more  than  ordinary 
importance.  Here  Elijah  the  prophet  dwelt  with  the  widow 
woman  and  her  son,  sharing  with  them  in  the  unfailing  supply 
from  the  barrel  of  meal  and  the  cruse  of  oil,  during  the  sore 
famine  of  Ahab's  day.  (i  Kings  xvii.  9,  10.)  Tradition  has 
also  associated  the  woman  of  Canaan,  whom  Mark  designates  as 
a  Syro-Phoenician,  with  the  city  of  Sarepta.  (Matt.  xv.  21-28  ; 
Mark  vii.  24-30.) 

Tyre.  —  Ancient  Tyre  was  a  double  city,  part  being  built  on 
the  shore  and  part  on  an  island  of  125  acres  in  extent,  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  by  a  strait  almost  a  half  mile  in  width. 
The  city  on  the  land,  which  according  to  tradition  was  the 
original  site  (Palaetyrus),  extended,  in  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity, over  a  circuit  of  about  fifteen  miles.  Its  location  on 
the  plain  is  eleven  miles  north  of  the  White  Cape  of  the  ladder 
of  Tyre  (Ras-el  Abyad),  and  five  south  of  the  Litany.  Its 
distance  from  Sidon  is  twenty-three  miles.  The  latitude  is 

33°  3°'- 

Tyre  is  first  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  the  list  of  cities  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  (Joshua  xix.  29.)  At  this  date 
it  is  designated  as  "the  strong  city  of  Tyre." 

The  mainland  portion  was  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians  in 

their  earlier  campaigns  in  Syria  ;  and  its  ruins  were  utilized  by 

Alexander  the  Great  to  build  a  causeway  to  the  city  in  the  sea. 

Long  before  its  fall  this  seagirt  city  had  outrivalled  it  in  power 

1  Tristram's  Topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  p.  293. 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     73 

and  magnificence.  It  is  of  this  island  city  mainly  that  the  Old 
Testament  prophets  speak.  Against  it  they  prophesied  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  because  of  its  towering  pride,  and  its  per- 
nicious influence  over  the  people  of  Israel.  These  utterances 
are  among  the  most  striking  in  expression,  and  minute  in  detail 
within  the  lids  of  the  Bible,  and  in  the  records  of  subsequent 
ages  their  fulfillment  to  the  letter  has  been  verified. 

In  2  Samuel  xxiv.  7  it  is  recorded  that  the  census-takers  of 
Joab,  who  went  through  all  the  land  in  the  space  of  nine  months 
and  twenty  days,  came  also  to  the  stronghold  of  Tyre.  This 
would  seem  to  imply  that  at  this  period  it  was  recognized  as  a 
city  of  Israel ;  but  it  is  more  likely  that  only  the  Israelite  resi- 
dents were  included  in  this  census.  In  the  prophetic  period 
Tyre  had  reached  the  zenith  of  its  glory  as  the  great  commer- 
cial metropolis  of  the  ancient  world.  In  the  book  of  Ezekiel 
(chapters  xxvi.  to  xxviii.  inclusive)  its  wealth  and  magnificence 
are  set  forth  in  a  detailed  statement  which  stands  unrivalled 
amid  the  literature  of  the  world  for  its  wonderful  accuracy  of 
description  and  rare  felicity  of  expression. 

Near  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  Shalman- 
ezer  besieged  the  stronghold  of  Tyre  for  five  years  without  suc- 
cess. One  hundred  and  twenty  years  later  Nebuchadnezzar 
destroyed  the  mainland  portion,  and  then  directed  all  his  ener- 
gies to  the  overthrow  of  the  insular  city.  For  thirteen  years  it 
held  out  against  this  powerful  assailant,  when  an  amicable  treaty 
was  arranged  which  seems  to  have  averted  its  utter  destruction. 
In  332  B.  c.  the  restored  city  endured  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
conducted  by  Alexander.  Making  a  peninsula  of  the  island 
by  means  of  a  laboriously  constructed  causeway,  he  at  length 
carried  it  by  storm,  slaughtered  its  defenders  and  left  it  a  ruined 
heap.  Partial  restorations  and  destructions  followed  under  the 
successive  dominion  of  Greeks,  Romans,  Crusaders  and  Sara- 
cens, but  its  former  glory  had  departed.  "  Broken  by  the  seas 
in  the  depth  of  the  waters,  her  merchandise  and  all  her  com- 
pany in  the  midst  of  her  are  fallen."  "  Swept  like  the  top  of 


The  Land  of  Israel 


a  rock,"  it  is  now  a  place  "for  the  spreading  of  nets  in  the 
midst  of  the  sea."  (Ezek.  xxvi.  14.) 

At  the  present  time  an  unpretentious  town  has  grown  up 
amid  the  outlying  ruins  on  a  portion  of  the  area  once  occupied 
by  this  princely  city.  The  most  interesting  relic  of  mediaeval 
Tyre  is  the  "  Crusader's  Cathedral,"  a  portion  of  which  is  still 
standing.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  Basilica  of  Paulinus,  built 
by  Constantine  and  consecrated  by  Eusebius  in  323.  In  its 
vaults  lie  the  bones  of  Origen  and  Frederick  Barbarossa.  With 
the  multitude  which  came  to  see  and  hear  Jesus,  from  all  parts, 
when  He  was  at  the  lake  of  Galilee,  were  representatives  also 
from  about  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Mark  iii.  8) :  and  at  the  time  of 
St.  Paul's  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  there  was  a  Christian  com- 
munity in  Tyre  with  whom  he  and  his  company  tarried  seven 
days. 

On  this  Tyrian  shore  the  impressive  incident  took  place,  as 
they  were  about  to  depart,  which  the  Evangelist  Luke  has  so 
graphically  described: — "They  all  brought  us  on  our  way, 
with  wives  and  children  till  we  were  out  of  the  city ;  and  we 
kneeled  down  on  the  shore  and  prayed.  And  when  we  had 
taken  our  leave  one  of  another,  we  took  ship ;  and  they  re- 
turned home  again."  (Acts  xxi.  5,  6.) 

While  the  Phoenician  plain  was  as  clearly  within  the  limits 
of  Israel's  heritage  as  the  sou  them  part  of  the  coast  plain,  it 
was  nevertheless  a  Gentile  province  in  name  and  population. 
Between  the  lower  tribes  and  the  Philistines  there  was  almost 
constant  strife  for  centuries ;  each  being  intent  upon  excluding 
the  other  from  the  occupation  of  debatable  territory.  Between 
the  tribe  of  Asher,  to  whom  this  portion  was  assigned,  and  its 
Canaanite  inhabitants,  on  the  contrary,  there  was  no  strife  for 
supremacy  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  To  a  certain  extent  at 
least  there  was,  by  mutual  consent,  a  joint  occupation  of  the 
land.  In  no  case  were  the  cities  above  described  dispossessed 
of  their  original  inhabitants.  Fond  of  ease  and  unmindful  of 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     T5 

the  oft  repeated  warnings  of  Jehovah,  theAsheritesentered  into 
sinful  alliances  with  the  people  of  the  land,  and  with  few  ex- 
ceptions abandoned  their  covenant  engagements  and  privileges. 
In  the  book  of  Judges  we  are  told  that  AsS.er  did  not  drive 
out  the  inhabitants  of  Accho  (Acre),  nor  the  inhabitants  of 
Zidon,  nor  of  Ahlab,  nor  of  Achzib,  nor  of  Helbah,  nor  of 
Aphik,  nor  of  Rehob  :  But  the  Asherites  dwelt  among  the  Ca- 
naanites,  the  inhabitants  of  the  land :  for  they  did  not  drive 
them  out.  (Judges  i.  31,  32.) 

II.     THE  PLAIN  OF  ACRE. 

This  designation  is  given  to  the  section  of  the  coast  plain  be- 
tween the  promontory  called  the  "Ladder  of  Tyre"  and  the 
promontory  of  Mount  Carmel.  It  is  twenty  miles  in  length. 
The  average  width  is  about  five  miles.  The  low  hills 
of  Galilee  bound  it  on  the  east,  separating  it  from  the 
great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  whose  only  connection  with  this  plain 
is  the  narrow  pass,  or  cleft,  through  which  the  Kishon  river 
finds  its  way  to  the  sea.  The  Acre  section  itself  is  somewhat 
broken  by  low  ridges  which  come  down  from  the  mountains. 
It  is  fertile  and  well  watered.  The  crescent  shaped  shore  line 
in  the  southern  portion  forms  the  only  natural  harbor  on  the 
coast  plain. 

Rivers. — Two  rivers,  the  Belus  and  the  Kishon  cross  the 
plain  and  flow  into  the  bay  of  Acre :  the  one  at  its  northern 
and  the  other  at  its  southern  extremity. 

The  Belus  (Nahr  Naman)  rises  in  the  upland  region  north 
of  Nazareth.  At  its  mouth  the  shell  fish  (Murex  brandaris  and 
M.  trunculus)  abounded,  from  which  the  famous  Tyrian  dye 
was  extracted.  From  the  sand  of  the  river,  according  to  Greek 
tradition  glass  was  first  produced  by  the  accidental  combination 
of  materials  in  the  camp  fires  of  the  Phoenician  sailors.  While 
there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  glass- 
making  in  this  locality,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  not  the  first  dis- 
covery of  this  nature,  for  among  the  exhumed  treasures  of 


76  The  Land  of  Israel 

Egypt,  beautiful  articles  of  glassware  have  been  found  dating 
back  as  far  as  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  Dynasties.  The  Kishon, 
which  flows  from  the  western  side  of  the  Esdraelon  plain,  en- 
ters the  plain  of  Acre  through  a  narrow  pass  (Wady  el  Kasab) 
between  Mount  Carmel  and  the  hills  of  Galilee.  Keeping  close 
to  the  base  of  Carmel  it  follows  its  general  direction  to  the  sea, 
between  steep  banks  of  loamy  soil  about  fifteen  feet  high,  heav- 
ily fringed  with  oleanders,  rushes,  reeds  and  grasses. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Acre  has  been  from  earliest  times 
the  most  important  city  in  this  section  of  the  Maritime  plain. 
It  is  situated  on  a  projecting  headland  which  forms  the  northern 
horn  of  the  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Belus  river.  In  the  book 
of  Judges  it  is  referred  to  as  a  well-known  Canaanite  town 
called  Accho  (i.  31). 

In  the  New  Testament  it  is  mentioned  but  once.  Here,  on 
the  occasion  of  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  St.  Paul  found 
Christian  brethren,  and  abode  with  them  one  day. 

In  this  passage  the  Evangelist  Luke  gives  to  the  place  its 
Greek  name,  Ptolemais.  (Acts  xxi.  27.)  From  the  Crusaders 
it  received  the  designation — St.  Jean  d  Acre.  Its  later  history 
is  crowded  with  stirring  events.  From  the  period  of  the  cru- 
sades it  has  been  regarded  as  the  "Key  of  Palestine";  and 
next  to  Jerusalem,  the  coveted  stronghold  of  contending  fac- 
tions and  nationalities.  It  has  been  besieged  and  bombarded 
in  turn  by  Baldwin,  Saladin,  Richard,  Sultan  Khalil,  Napoleon, 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  the  united  fleets  of  England,  Austria  and 
Turkey.  The  modern  city  is  surrounded  by  massive  walls.  It 
covers  an  area  of  fifty  acres,  and  is  built  upon  the  heaps  of 
former  ruins.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  can  a  more  perfect  repre- 
sentation be  found  of  a  typical  city  of  the  Feudal  times.  Acre 
is  the  emporium  of  the  grain  trade  from  the  Hauran.  It  is 
said  that  from  4,000  to  5,000  camel  loads  arrive  daily  from 
this  district  in  the  season.  Basalt  grindstones  are  also  brought 
in  large  numbers  from  the  Lejah,  one  being  regarded  as  a  load 
for  a  camel. 


Maritime  Plain  North  of  Mount  Carmel     77 

The  present  population  is  about  10,000. 

Haifa,  ten  miles  south  of  Acre,  is  the  second  town  of  im- 
portance on  this  plain.  In  the  future  it  is  likely  to  outgrow 
Acre  as  a  commercial  emporium.  It  lies  on  the  southern  horn 
of  the  crescent  shaped  bay  directly  under  the  ridge  of  Carmel. 

Haifa  is  essentially  a  modern  city  in  its  structure  and  ap- 
pointments. It  is  the  terminus  of  the  railroad  now  in  process 
of  construction  to  Damascus,  and  is  connected  with  Nazareth 
by  a  good  carriage  road.  It  is  also  the  port  at  which  the  Aus- 
trian Lloyd  Steamers  touch,  once  a  fortnight,  in  each  direction. 
Canon  Tristram  associates  Haifa  with  the  old  Canaanite  city 
of  Achshaph, whose  king  was  smitten  by  Joshua.  (Josh.  xi.  i, 
xii.  20.)  "Two  miles  out  of  it  are  the  sculptures  and  ruins 
which  mark  the  site  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  city  of  Sycaminum, 
still  overshadowed  by  the  sycamine  fig  trees  whence  it  derived 
its  name. ' ' l 

Achzib,  now  Es  Zib,  is  an  old  Phoenician  port,  seven  miles 
north  of  Acre.  It  is  mentioned  in  Joshua  xix.  29  and  Judges 
i.  31.  This  town  was  regarded  as  the  northern  limit  of  the 
Holy  Land,  after  the  return  from  the  Captivity. 

"  Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles  "  has  been  identified  with 
the  village  of  El-Harothieh  on  the  north  side  of  the  Kishon, 
about  nine  miles  from  Haifa.  It  is  situated  at  the  entrance  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  narrow  pass  through  which  the  Kishon 
issues  into  the  plain  of  Acre.  Tell  Harothieh  a  little  lower 
down,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  is  covered  with  ruins,  and 
its  position  would  indicate  the  existence  of  a  garrison  town  from 
the  earliest  period  of  the  country's  occupation.2  Harosheth 
was  the  camp  of  Sisera  before  his  disastrous  battle  with  Barak. 
From  this  point  he  advanced  against  Barak  to  a  position  on  the 
Great  Plain  near  Megiddo,  eight  miles  distant. 

The  wild  rush  for  safety  in  the  midst  of  the  terrible  storm 
which  suddenly  burst  upon  the  flying  army  was  evidently  in 

l  Topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  p.  204. 
*The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  II.,  p.  216. 


78 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  direction  of  the  narrow  pass  up  which  they  had  recently 
come.  "There  horses  and  men  became  mixed  in  horrible 
confusion  jostling  and  treading  down  one  another ;  and  the 
river,  swifter  and  deeper  than  above,  runs  zigzag  from  side  to 
side,  until,  just  before  it  reaches  Tell  Harothieh,  it  dashes 
against  the  perpendicular  base  of  Carmel.  There  is  no  longer 
any  possibility  of  avoiding  it,  and,  rank  upon  rank,  the  flying 
host  plunge  madly  in,  those  behind  crushing  those  before." 
"The  river  of  Kishon  swept  them  away,  that  ancient  river,  the 
river  Kishon."  l  (Judges  iv.  14-16,  v.  21.) 

Several  of  the  mud  built  villages  which  dot  the  eastern 
border  of  the  plain  rest  upon  the  ruins  of  ancient  towns,  to 
which  the  old  names  current  in  the  days  of  Joshua,  with  but 
slight  changes,  persistently  cling.  Among  these  are  Kabul, 
southeast  of  Acre,  the  Cabul  of  Joshua  (xix.  27);  Abdeh  the 
Abdon  of  Joshua  (xxi.  30)  on  the  northern  limit  of  the  plain ; 
and  Amkah  the  Beth-emek  of  Joshua. 

i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  II.,  p.  215. 


^Maritime  ^lain 
South 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   MARITIME   PLAIN   SOUTH   OF   MOUNT   CARMEL 

THERE  are  three  recognized  divisions  in  this  portion  of 
the  seacoast  plain,  viz:  The  plains  of  Athlit,  Sharon  and 
Philistia. 

I.     THE  PLAIN  OF  ATHLIT 

Between  the  promontory  of  Mount  Carmel  and  the  Crocodile 
river  (Nahr  ez  Zerka),  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles,  there  is  a 
narrow  stretch  of  coast  plain,  which  does  not  properly  belong 
to  the  plain  of  Sharon.  It  has  no  distinctive  name  as  a  whole, 
but  the  north  portion  is  sometimes  designated  as  the  plain 
of  Athlit  and  the  south  as  the  plain  of  Dor,  or  Tanturah. 
This  section  is  for  the  most  part  shut  in  between  a  low 
ridge  of  sand-stone  hills  bordering  the  coast  line  and  the 
western  slope  of  the  Carmel  range.  The  ancient  road, 
on  which  the  deeply  worn  tracks  of  chariot  wheels  may 
yet  be  seen,  runs  within  the  sea-coast  ridge  as  far  as  the 
town  of  Athlit,  eight  miles  from  Carmel;  after  which  it 
passes  outside  through  an  artificial  gateway,  cut  through 
the  ridge  of  rock,  and  skirts  its  western  base.  From 
this  point  the  coast  plain  becomes  a  well-defined  strip, 
varying  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  or  more  in  width.  Athlit 
was  a  strongly  fortified  garrison  town  in  the  period  of  the 
Crusades,  and  was,  *br  a  time  the  chief  seat  of  the  order  of  the 
Knights  Templar.  It  was  the  last  citadel  held  by  the  Crusaders 
in  the  Holy  Land.  Athlit  has  no  Scriptural  associations. 

Dor. — The  modern  town  of  Tantura,  six  miles  south  of 
Athlit,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Dor,  or  Dora,  as 
it  was  called  by  the  Romans.  It  was  a  royal  city  with  several 
outlying  towns.  "The  ruins,"  says  Tristram,  "are  still  ex- 

79 


80 


The  Land  of  Israel 


tensive,  projecting  into  the  sea,  while  the  old  tower,  broken  as 
it  is,  is  still  a  conspicuous  landmark  from  afar."  The  Scripture 
references  are  Josh.  xi.  2,  xii.  23,  xvii.  n ;  Judges  i.  27,  and 
i  Kings  iv.  n. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Dor  the  hills  bordering  the  coast  recede, 
and  the  great  plain  opens  out,  widening  as  it  extends  south- 
ward, to  the  desert. 

II.     THE  PLAIN  OF  SHARON. 

The  Nahr  ez  Zerka,  or  Crocodile  river  marks  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  plain  of  Sharon.  Its  eastern  border  is  the 
rugged  framework  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim. 

There  is  no  natural  division  between  Sharon  and  Philistia, 
but  the  dividing  line  is  usually  drawn  eastward  along  a  low 
ridge  from  the  mouth  of  the  Nahr  Rubin,  seven  or  eight  miles 
south  of  Jaffa.  As  thus  defined,  the  Sharon  plain  is  forty-four 
miles  in  length.  In  width  it  varies  from  six  to  twelve  miles. 
In  the  northeast  corner  there  is  an  oak  forest  extending  over 
into  the  foot-hills,  which  is  nearly  nine  miles  in  circumference. 

At  intervals  small  groves  of  oak  extend  southward  for 
several  miles.  These  are,  without  doubt,  the  survivors  of  a 
continuous  forest  which  at  one  time  bordered  the  eastern  side 
of  the  plain.  "  It  is  the  same,"  says  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  "  which 
the  Crusaders  named  the  Forest  of  Assur ;  Tasso  the  Enchanted 
Forest;  and  Napoleon  the  Forest  of  Miski."  *  South  of  the 
Crocodile  river  for  ten  or  twelve  miles  the  plain  is  marred  by 
marshes  and  drifting  sand  dunes.  This  has  been  described  as 
"a  district  of  deserted  ruins,  haunted  by  Bedouins,  who  occa- 
sionally cultivate  some  patches  of  land  and  reap  scanty  crops 
of  wheat  and  barley. ' ' 

The  remaining  portion  is  an  unbroken  stretch  of  undulating 

prairie  or  pasture  land,  diversified  at  intervals  by  grain  fields, 

gardens,  and  thickly  set  groves  of  oranges,  pomegranates  and 

palms,  which  cluster  around  the  scattered  villages  or  spread  out 

J  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  148. 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     81 

over  the  rich  valleys,  into  which  the  numerous  wadies  from  the 
mountains  pour  their  fertilizing  floods  year  by  year.  From  the 
sea  to  the  mountains  there  is  a  gradual  ascent  of  nearly  200 
feet.  In  some  places,  however,  there  are  ridges  or  groups  of 
hills  that  rise  to  an  elevation  of  250  and  300  feet  above  the 
general  level.  Sharon  is  crossed  by  several  perennial  streams, 
which  converge  near  the  sea  into  the  Zerka,  the  Muf  jir,  or  Dead 
river  of  the  Crusaders,  the  Iskanderuneh,  and  the  Aujeh.  The 
latter  drains  a  large  section  of  the  hill  country  of  Samaria. 

The  main  trunk  of  the  Aujeh  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
the  waters  of  Kanah  and  numerous  smaller  streams.  It  is  less 
than  ten  miles  in  length.  'While  the  Aujeh  is  noted  as  the 
shortest  river  in  Palestine,  it  is  also  the  largest  next  to  the 
Jordan.  It  rolls  to  the  sea  "between  deep  banks,  a  yellow, 
turbid,  sandy  volume  of  water  nearly  as  wide  as  the  Jordan  at 
Jericho,  unfordable  in  winter  and  nearly  dry  in  summer."  1 

The  Nahr  Rubin  properly  belongs  to  the  Philistine  section. 
It  touches  the  plain  of  Sharon  only  at  its  outlet  by  the  sea, 
where  it  is  barred  by  the  inrolling  sand,  and  spreads  out  to  a 
width  of  more  than  200  feet.  The  richest,  and  most  highly 
cultivated,  portion  of  the  plain  lies  south  of  the  Aujeh.  Here 
also  may  be  found  the  most  of  the  ruined  towns  and  cities.  A 
few  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Iskanderuneh  is  the  centre  of 
a  famous  melon  growing  district,  where  field  joins  to  field  for 
miles  on  every  hand.  In  the  season  hundreds  of  camels  are 
required  to  bear  their  luscious  fruitage  to  the  market.2 

In  Old  Testament  times  the  excellency  of  Sharon  was 
proverbial ;  and  in  all  ages  it  has  been  celebrated  for  its  beauty, 
fertility  and  rich  pasturage.  (Isa.  xxxv.  2.) 

Over  its  wide  expanse  in  the  early  springtime  "a  million  of 
flowers  are  scattered, — poppies,  pimpernells,  anemones,  the 
convolvulus  and  the  mallow,  the  narcissis  and  blue  iris-roses  of 
Sharon  and  lilies  of  the  valley."  Under  the  charge  of  his 

» Thirty  years'  Work,  P.  E.  F.,  p.  93. 
»Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  130. 


82 


The  Land  of  Israel 


chief  herdsman  Shitrai  the  Sharonite,  one  of  the  large  herds  of 
King  David  was  fed  in  Sharon,  (i  Chron.  xxvii.  29.)  The 
sweet  scented  narcissus  was  probably  the  rose  of  Sharon,  to 
which  allusion  is  made  in  Cant.  ii.  i.  With  all  its  desolations 
Sharon  is  still  a  favorite  resort  of  the  herdsmen  and  "  a  fold  of 
flocks."  (Isa.  Ixv.  10.) 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

Caesarea,  the  royal  city  of  the  Herods  and  the  Roman 
capital  of  Judea,  was  built  on  a  rocky  ledge  by  the  sea  in  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  plain.  It  lies  about  60  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem,  and  25  south  of  the  promontory  of 
Carmel.  The  city  was  planned  and  completed  by  Herod  the 
Great,  who  spent  twelve  years  in  its  building  and  adornment. 
He  constructed  an  artificial  harbor  in  its  front  by  erecting  a 
massive  mole  or  breakwater  far  out  into  the  sea.  According 
to  Josephus  this  mole  was  200  feet  wide  and  of  great  strength. 
Caesarea  was  "  a  city  of  great  beauty  and  magnificence,  with  a 
harbor  looking  Romeward  and  nothing  in  common  with  the 
Jewish  city  of  the  plain  or  mountain."  It  had  much  to  do, 
however,  with  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  and  numerous  refer- 
ences are  made  to  it  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  It  was  the 
residence  of  Philip  the  evangelist;  and  in  it  were  baptized 
Cornelius  —  the  first  Roman  convert  —  and  his  household  (viii. 
40,  xxi.  8  and  16;  also  chapters  x.  and  xi.). 

Here  Herod  Agrippa  I.  was  stricken  with  a  loathsome  dis- 
ease, while  appropriating  honors  which  belonged  to  God  alone 
(xii.  19-23).  From  its  famous  seaport  St.  Paul  sailed  in  his 
early  ministry  to  Tarsus,  and  to  it  he  returned  on  his  second 
and  third  missionary  journeys.  (Acts  ix.  30,  xviii.  22,  xxi. 
8.)  Here  he  made  that  pathetic  appeal  to  his  friends,  who 
sought  to  detain  him  from  going  up  to  Jerusalem  "  What  mean 
ye  to  weep  and  break  mine  heart  ?  for  I  am  ready  not  to  be 
bound  only,  but  also  to  die  at  Jerusalem  for  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus"  (xxi.  13).  To  the  same  city,  after  a  little  while 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     83 

he  was  brought  back  by  Roman  soldiers  to  endure  an  impris- 
onment of  more  than  two  years.  In  one  of  its  magnificent 
palaces  of  state  he  stood  in  turn  before  Felix,  Festus,  and 
Agrippa  (chapters  xxiv.-xxvi.).  It  is  a  significant  fact,  that 
from  this  harbor  "looking  Romeward  "  St.  Paul  went  forth  at 
last,  albeit  as  a  manacled  prisoner,  to  preach  the  gospel  to  them 
that  were  at  Rome  also  (xxvii.  2).  No  more  important  event 
than  this,  in  its  bearing  on  the  whole  world,  was  ever  chroni- 
cled of  this  great  city  and  its  overcrowded  seaport.  Thus  it 
came  to  pass  that  "in  seeking  separation  from  his  people,  and 
an  open  door  to  the  west,  Herod  had  secured  these  benefits 
for  a  nobler  cause  than  his  own." 

In  the  year  69  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  Emperor  in  Caesarea, 
and  gave  to  it  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  colony.  Eusebius, 
the  historian  of  the  early  Church,  was  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century  and  Origen  was,  for  a  time, 
a  teacher  in  its  famous  school.  The  Crusaders  found  it  a  city 
in  ruins,  and  partly  rebuilt  its  crumbling  towers  and  walls.  In 
the  year  1265  its  walls  were  battered  down  by  Sultan  Bibers, 
and  all  that  pertained  to  its  former  greatness  was  ruthlessly 
laid  low. 

Since  that  period  it  has  been  a  desolate  ruin  in  the  midst  of 
widespread  desolations,  caused  by  time  and  the  neglect  of  man. 
On  the  north  side  of  the  harbor  the  waves  still  wash  over  a 
great  number  of  prostrate  columns  which  long  ago  were  thrown 
down  into  the  sea.  The  excavations  made  by  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Survey  have  disclosed  the  outlines  of  a  magnificent 
city  with  wide  streets,  a  noble  forum,  a  vast  amphitheatre,  and 
long  rows  of  columns — all  of  which  confirm  the  record  of  its 
former  greatness  and  glory. 

Jaffa  or  Yafa,  was  known  as  Japho  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  Joppa  in  the  New. 

It  is  thirty-two  miles  south  of  Caesarea,  thirty-eight  north- 
west of  Jerusalem,  and  about  midway  between  Carmel  and  -the 
desert.  The  town  is  built  upon  the  abrupt  slope  of  a  hill 


84  The  Land  of  Israel 

which  rises  153  feet  above  the  water.  "  The  houses  rise  tier 
above  tier  from  the  very  verge  of  the  sea.  The  declivity  is  so 
precipitous  that  the  flat  roofs  of  the  lower  tier  of  houses  form 
the  terrace  in  front  of  those  above  and  the  ascent  and  descent 
along  the  narrow  streets  is  one  continual  stairway."  As  seen 
from  the  deck  of  an  approaching  steamer  this  unique  combina- 
tion of  closely  compacted  buildings  gives  the  city  a  very  pic- 
turesque appearance.  On  the  landward  side  it  is  surrounded 
by  luxuriant  groves  of  oranges,  olives,  pomegranates,  figs,  apri- 
cots, and  other  choice  fruits  of  Oriental  lands.  It  is  said  that 
there  are  more  than  350  gardens  of  fruit-bearing  trees,  which 
join  each  other  in  one  continuous  belt  stretching  north  and 
south  for  seven  miles  and  extending  inland  about  one  and  a 
half. 

The  average  yield  of  the  orange  crop  alone,  in  this  district, 
is  estimated  at  8,000,000  annually. 

The  port  of  Jaffa  is  regarded  as  the  most  dangerous  landing 
place  on  the  shores  of  the  Levant.  It  is  encircled  by  great 
rocks,  and  its  narrow  passage-ways  are  guarded  by  long  lines 
of  wave-washed  ledges  and  subterranean  reefs.  Through  these 
narrow  channels  little  boats  ply  back  and  forth  between  the 
shore  and  the  open  roadstead,  more  than  half  a  mile  away, 
where  seagoing  vessels  ride  at  anchor.  When  the  surf  dashes 
with  more  than  ordinary  violence  against  this  rock-bound  shore, 
the  passengers  and  goods  are  landed  on  the  backs  of  the  Arab 
boatmen,  who  from  long  habit,  have  become  wonderfully  expert 
in  this  manner  of  delivery.  This  ancient  seaport — one  of  the 
oldest  known  to  history — notwithstanding  its  evil  reputation, 
has  been  for  many  centuries  the  gateway  of  approach  to  the 
Holy  City,  for  countless  hosts  of  travellers  and  pilgrims  from 
Europe  and  all  the  far-away  lands  of  Christendom.  The  only 
recorded  instance  in  which  it  was  used  as  an  outgoing  port  of 
the  Israelites  themselves,  is  given  in  the  book  of  Jonah.  Here 
the  unwilling  prophet  took  passage  for  Tarshish  when  flying 
from  the  presence  of  the  Lord.  (Jonah  i.  3.)  In  Solomon's 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     85 

day  it  was  the  landing  place  for  the  cedar  rafts  sent  down  from 
the  forests  of  Lebanon  for  the  building  of  the  Temple  in  Jerusa- 
lem. (2  Chron.  ii.  16.)  Here  in  like  manner  Ezra  received  his 
floats  of  trees  for  the  building  of  the  second  Temple.  In  this 
rock-girt  harbor  was  laid  the  scene  of  the  classic  legend  of  the 
deliverance  of  Andromeda  from  the  sea  monster.  The  first 
scriptural  reference  to  the  city  is  in  Joshua  xix.  46,  where  it  is 
represented  as  fronting  the  border  of  the  tribe  of  Dan. 

Jaffa  was  held  as  a  possession  of  Israel  during  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon,  and  also  for  a  time  during  the  period  of 
the  Maccabees.  After  the  Roman  conquest,  it  was  distinctively 
a  Jewish  city.  Here  Peter  raised  Tabitha  (Dorcas)  from  the 
dead.  (Acts  ix.  36-42.)  A  few  days  later  he  had  in  this  city 
the  wonderful  vision  on  the  house  top,  overlooking  the  sea, 
which  made  the  way  plain  for  the  evangelization  of  the  Gen- 
tiles :  and  hither  came  the  three  messengers  to  guide  him  to 
the  house  of  Cornelius  in  Caesarea.  (Acts  x.  9-18  and  23.) 
The  house  accredited  to  Simon  the  tanner  by  tradition  is  still 
shown  in  Jaffa.  Excavations  in  its  front  have  disclosed  oval 
cisterns  which  may  have  been  used  in  tanning.  These  with 
other  accessories  give  color  to  the  supposition  that  the  house 
stands  on  or  near  the  original  site  of  Simon's  house.  Jaffa  has 
been  frequently  destroyed  and  rebuilt  during  its  long  history. 

It  has  associations  of  thrilling  interest  in  connection  with  the 
Maccabean  struggle,  the  Arab  invasion,  the  Crusades  and  the 
brief,  but  darkly  clouded  period  of  its  occupancy  by  Napoleon. 

The  present  population,  as  given  by  Baedecker,  is  23,000. 
Jaffa  is  connected  with  Jerusalem  by  a  carriage  road  and  a 
recently  constructed  railroad,  which  carries  passengers  to  Jeru- 
salem in  three  hours.  The  fare  is  $3.00  first  class  and  $1.00 
second  class. 

Lydda  or  Ludd,  is  eleven  miles  inland  from  Jaffa,  on  one 
of  the  main  roads  leading  to  Jerusalem.  It  seems  to  have  be- 
longed to  Benjamin  and  was  known  as  Lod.  (i  Chron.  viii. 

12.) 


86 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  Romans  called  it  Diospolis,  but  the  old  name,  with  a 
slight  modification  (Ludd)  has  survived  all  the  changes  of  the 
past.  After  the  captivity,  Lydda  was  reoccupied  by  the  Jews. 
(Ezra  ii.  33;  Neh.  xi.  35.)  It  was  the  home  of  Eneas  the 
paralytic,  who  was  miraculously  healed  by  Peter.  It  became 
the  central  point  afterward,  of  the  Apostle's  successful  ministry 
among  the  residents  of  the  plain  of  Sharon.  (Acts  ix.  33-35.) 
The  most  interesting  relic  of  the  past  in  the  modern  village  is 
the  ruined  church  of  St.  George.  According  to  the  medieval 
tradition  St.  George,  the  patron  Saint  of  England,  was  born  and 
buried  in  Lydda.  "  Within  a  few  miles  are  Ono,  Hadid  and 
Neballat,  (i  Chron.  viii.  12)  still  bearing  the  names  of  Kef'r 
Auna,  Hadithet,  and  Beit  Neballat."  l 

Rarnleh  is  pleasantly  situated,  amid  fruitful  orchards  and 
olive  groves,  on  a  slight  eminence  two  or  three  miles  southwest 
of  Lydda.  It  dates  from  the  eighth  century  and  has  many  as- 
sociations connected  with  the  period  of  the  Crusades.  The 
principal  object  of  interest  in  Ramleh  is  a  massive  square  tower 
resembling  the  famous  Giralda  of  Seville,  which  rises  from  a 
base  of  ruined  buildings  to  a  height  of  1 20  feet.  It  is  probably 
a  relic  of  the  Crusading  days.  A  circular  stairway  conducts  to 
the  summit  of  the  tower  from  which  the  view  is  wonderfully 
comprehensive  and  distinct. 

"The  whole  plain  of  Sharon  from  the  mountains  of  Judea 
and  Samaria  to  the  sea  and  from  the  port  of  Carmel  to  the 
sandy  deserts  of  Philistia,  lies  spread  out  like  an  illuminated 
map."' 2  Ramleh  is  the  first  station  on  the  railroad  to  Jerusalem. 
It  is  the  most  prosperous  of  all  the  inland  towns  of  the  plain, 
and  at  present  has  over  8,000  inhabitants. 

Antipatris. — The  true  site  of  this  Herodian  stronghold  has 
been  definitely  located  by  the  Palestine  Exporation  Fund  Survey 
at  Ras  el  Ain,  twenty-six  miles  from  Caesarea  and  forty-two 
from  Jerusalem. 

1  Tristram's  Topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  p.  51. 
*  Land  and  Book,  p.  113. 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     87 

There  were  two  main  routes  from  Jerusalem  to  Caesarea,  both 
of  which  passed  through  Antipatris.  One  was  by  way  of 
Lydda  ;  and  the  other  by  way  of  Gophna,  farther  to  the  north. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Apostle  Paul  was  sent,  as  a  prisoner,  to 
the  Roman  governor,  by  the  hitter  route.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Antipatris  a  portion  of  the  solid  road  bed  has  recently  been  un- 
covered. It  bears  the  marks  of  centuries  of  travel,  but  is  still 
in  good  condition.  The  abundant  supply  of  water  which  gushes 
out  from  the  foot  of  the  mound  of  ruins  that  marks  the  site  of 
Antipatris,  is  an  indication  of  the  importance  of  the  place  as  ? 
principal  station  on  this  great  thoroughfare. 

Gilgal. — The  Gilgal  of  Joshua  xii.  23  has  been  identified  with 
Jiljulieh,  fourteen  miles  northeast  of  Jaffa  and  five  north  of  An- 
tipatris; Arsuf,  on  the  coast  with  Apollonia;  Beth-Dagon 
with  Beit-Dejan,  five  miles  northwest  of  Lydda  (i  Sam. 
v.  2) ;  and  Rakkon  with  Tell-er  Rakkut,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Aujeh.  These  points  cover  all  the  places  of 
special  interest  in  this  section. 

Roadways. — Two  important  roads,  nearly  parallel  in  their 
course,  traverse  the  plain  of  Sharon  from  south  to  north.  One, 
the  great  coast  route,  already  referred  to — borders  its  western 
side  :  the  other  its  eastern  side,  keeping  as  close  to  the  moun- 
tain ridge  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  permits.  The  inland 
caravan  route  northward,  which  passes  through  Ramleh,  Lydda, 
Antipatris  and  Gilgal  enters  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  by  the  Me- 
giddo  pass  at  the  eastern  base  of  Mount  Carmel.  Another 
main  route  diverges  from  this  road  at  Wady  Abu  Nar  and 
passing  to  the  northeast  by  way  of  the  plain  of  Dothan  enters 
Esdraelon  at  Jenin.  This,  says  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  is  no  doubt 
the  historical  road  from  Egypt  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
Damascus.  It  was  on  this  road  near  Dothan  that  Joseph's 
brethren,  having  cast  him  into  a  pit,  lifted  up  their  eyes,  and 
behold,  a  company  of  Ishmaelites  came  from  Gilead,  with  their 
camels  bearing  spicery  and  balm  and  myrrh,  going  to  carry  it 
down  to  Egypt.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.) 


88 


The  Land  of  Israel 


A  road  diverging  from  the  coast  road  at  Jaffa  crosses  the  in- 
land route  at  Gilgal  and  thence  leads  to  Shechem  or  Nablous. 
Aside  from  the  railroad,  there  are  two  great  thoroughfares  across 
the  plain  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem.  One,  by  way  of  Lydda  and 
the  Beth-Horon  pass,  enters  the  city  from  the  north  :  the  other, 
by  way  of  Ramleh  and  Wady  Ali,  enters  at  the  Jaffa  gate  on 
the  west.  The  railroad  diverges  from  this  route  southward  at 
Ramleh  and  follows  the  Wady-es-Surar  (Valley  of  Sorek)  to 
Beth-shemesh,  approaching  Jerusalem  by  way  of  the  valley  of 
Rephaim  on  the  southwest. 

III.     THE  PHILISTINE  PLAIN 

The  plain  of  Philistia  extends  from  the  Nahr  Rubin  to  the 
Wady  el-Arish,  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles.  Its  average 
width  is  greater  than  the  Sharon  section,  especially  to  the  south. 
It  is  lower  and  flatter,  also,  but  is  diversified  in  some  places  by 
gentle  elevations.  The  irregular  mass  of  the  low  hills,  or 
Shephelah,  which  belong  to  the  plain  rather  than  to  the  Central 
Range,  encroaches  upon  its  eastern  border,  contracting  its 
limits  at  some  points,  and  at  others  merging  so  closely  with  the 
rising  ground  of  the  plain  itself,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  draw  a 
definite  line  of  distinction  between  them.  The  portion  which 
lies  between  Gaza  and  the  Wady  el-Arish  is  a  noted  pastoral 
region,  having  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Negeb,  to 
which  it  properly  belongs.  Before  the  period  of  David's  con- 
quests it  was  known  as  "the  south  of  the  Cherethites"  or 
Philistines,  (i  Sam.  xxx.  14  and  16.)  At  times,  however,  it 
seems  to  have  been  occupied  by  Amalek  altogether  or 
as  a  joint  possession.  (Num.  xiii.  29,  xiv.  25.)  In  the 
days  of  Abraham  it  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Gerar, 
which  was  ruled  by  Philistine  princes. 

North  of  Gaza  the  soil  is  exceedingly  rich  and  fertile.  For 
two  or  three  miles  inland  there  is  a  continuous  line  of  barren, 
drifting  sand  along  the  shore.  Back  of  this  throughout  its 
whole  extent,  the  plain  is  one  vast  grainfield.  Without  any 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     89 

other  fertilizers  than  nature  has  provided,  it  has  yielded  enor- 
mous crops  continuously  for  forty  centuries.  The  streams  which 
come  down  from  the  hill  country  during  the  rainy  season,  sink 
down  into  the  porous  soil,  and  find  their  way  underground  to 
the  sea. 

"You  may  leave  the  water  at  the  commencement  of  the 
wady  mouth,  ride  over  the  plain  without  seeing  any  of  it,  and 
meet  it  again  welling  out  of  the  ground  close  to  the  seashore, 
forming  wide  lagoons  there."  While  surface  irrigation  by  the 
mountain  streams  is  not  practicable  under  present  conditions, 
a  good  supply  of  water  can  easily  be  obtained  by  boring  or 
sinking  weLls  a  few  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  towns  and  villages  the  orchards  and 
gardens  are  as  famous  for  their  rich  variety  and  luxuriant 
growth,  as  those  which  border  the  coast  of  the  plain  of 
Sharon. 

Cities  and  Towns. — There  were  five  chief  or  royal  cities  of 
ancient  Philistia,  included  under  one  united  government,  or 
confederacy,  viz :  Ekron,  Gath,  Ashdod,  Askelon,  and  Gaza. 
Their  rulers  were  styled  "Lords  of  the  Philistines."  With 
each  of  these  chief  cities  were  associated  groups  of  villages, 
the  remains  of  which,  if  they  exist  at  all,  are  not  distinguish- 
able from  the  ruins  of  later  towns,  scattered  at  intervals  all  over 
the  plain.  All  of  the  chief  cities,  except  Gath,  have  carried  up 
with  their  names,  through  the  long  ages  of  their  existence,  the 
unquestioned  evidence  of  their  location  and  identity. 

(i)  Ekron,  or  Akir  as  it  is  now  called,  was  on  the  north- 
ern frontier  of  Philistia,  and  was  within  the  limit  of  territory 
originally  assigned  to  Judah.  It  is  situated  on  the  southern 
slope  of  a  low  ridge,  which  overlooks  the  Sorek  valley.  It  is 
nine  miles  from  the  sea  and  five  miles  southwest  of 
Ramleh.  Ekron  was  the  last  of  the  Philistine  cities  to 
which  the  ark  of  God  was  sent:  and  thence  it  was  re- 
turned, on  the  new  cart  drawn  by  milch  kine,  by  way  of 
the  well  worn  road  up  the  Sorek  valley  to  Beth-shemesh 


tfO  The  Land  of  Israel 

in  the  mountains  of  Judah.  (i  Sam.  vi.  7-13.)  A  collec- 
tion of  fifty  or  more  mud  hovels  is  all  that  represents 
the  former  glo~y  of  this  royal  city  of  the  Philistines. 

(2)  Ashdod  (Esdud),  Azotus  of  the  New  Testament,  lies  on 
the  coast  road,  three  miles  from  the  sea.     It  is  nearly  midway 
between  Jaffa  and  Gaza.     It  had  a  seaport  in  former  times,  but 
its  site  has  been  swallowed  up  by  the  encroaching  sands.     The 
site  of  the  town  is  marked  by  a  Tell  which  was  probably  the 
Acropolis  of  the  ancient  city.     Ashdod  was  one  of  the  notable 
strongholds  of  the  Philistine  plain,  and  from  the  days  of  the 
Anakim,  its  original  occupants  and  defenders,  until  the  closing 
period  of  the  Crusades,  its  history  is  mainly  a  record  of  battles 
and  sieges.     Psammeticus,  King  of  Egypt,  invested  it  closely 
for  twenty-nine  years  before  it  fell  into  his  hands.     This,  on  the 
authority  of  Herodotus,  is  the  longest  siege  recorded  in  history. 
Preceding  this  destruction,  and  within  a  period  of  less  than  two 
centuries,  Ashdod  had  been  besieged  and  taken  in  turn  by 
Uzziah  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6)  ;    by  the  army  of  Sargon 
(Isa.  xx.  i),  and  by  Sennacherib. 

To  this  city,  the  chief  seat  of  worship  of  the  god  Dagon,  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  removed  after  its  capture  by  the 
Philistines.  Its  presence  was  attended  with  consequences  so 
disastrous  to  the  image  of  Dagon,  and  the  residents  of  Ashdod, 
that  it  was  hastily  transferred  to  the  neighboring  city  of  Gath. 
(i  Sam.  v.  8.)  The  only  New  Testament  reference  is  the  brief 
account  of  Philip's  visit  on  his  evangelistic  tour  among  the 
cities  of  the  coast.  (Acts  viii.  40.)  The  modern  village  of 
Esdud  has  a  few  substantial  buildings  surrounded  by  an  un- 
sightly collection  of  mud  huts. 

(3)  Gath  has  not  been  identified  with  certainty.     Tell  es 
Safi  at  the  foot  of  the  low  hills,  ten  miles  east  of  Ashdod, 
has  been  suggested  as  a  possible  site. 

This  is  the  famous  Blancheguarde  of  the  Crusaders,  where  a 
castle  was  built  to  command  the  outlet  of  the  valley  of  Elah. 
Gath  was  the  home  of  Goliath  and  his  associates  of  the  race 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     91 

of  Giants,  (i  Sam.  xvii.  2;  2  Sam.  xxi.  18-22.)  In  this 
city  David  found  a  refuge  for  a  time  from  the  persecutions  of 
King  Saul,  (i  Sam.  xxvii.)  Some  good  authorities  have  seen 
in  Beit  Jibrin,  farther  south,  evidences  of  identification  with 
this  ancient  city  which  have  more  weight  than  those  adduced 
in  favor  of  Tell  es  Safi. 

(4)  Askelon  (Askulan)  is  a  deserted  ruin  ten  miles  south- 
west of  Ashdod.     It  lies  some  distance  west  of  the  coast  road, 
and  is  only  one  of  the  confederate  towns  which  was  built  on 
the  seashore.     Its  natural  position  is  one  of  great  strength. 
William  of  Tyre  describes  it  as  "  lying  within  a  semicircle  of 
ramparts — partly  natural  and  partly  artificial — the  diameter  of 
which  was  formed  by  the  sea  on  the  west."     The  white  lime- 
stone cliffs  which  formed  this  rocky  amphitheatre,  could  be 
seen  far  out  to  sea  and  gave  to  the  place  the  distinctive  name 
of  "  The  White  City."     An  inscription  on  the  walls  of  Karnak 
gives  an  account  of  the  capture  of  Askelon  by  Rameses  II.  on 
his  northward  march  into  Syria ;  and  it  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  a  fierce  struggle  since  that  day. 

By  the  Crusaders  it  was  regarded  as  the  key  to  Southwest 
Palestine.  "  Within  the  walls  and  towers,  still  standing,  Richard 
of  England  held  his  court,"  and  most  of  his  daring  adventures 
were  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  There  are  numerous  references 
to  Askelon  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  it  is  not  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  New.  Two  remarkable  prophecies  concerning  it 
have  been  literally  fulfilled, — viz  :  "  Askelon  shall  be  a  desola- 
tion." (Zeph.  ii.  4.)  "Askelon  shall  not  be  inhabited." 
(Zech.  ix.  5.) 

(5)  Gaza  was  the  most  important  stronghold  along  the 
line  of  the  great  coast  road.     Its  modern  representative,  which 
the  Arabs  call  Guzzeh,  stands  on  or  near  the  original  location. 
It  is  eight  miles  from  Askelon  and  three  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  better  part  of  the  city  is  built  upon  a  rounded  or  oblong 
hill,  which  rises  sixty  or  seventy  feet  above  the  plain.     The 
walls  and  fortifications  above  ground  have  disappeared  and  in 


92 


The  Land  of  Israel 


their  stead  is  a  broad,  green  belt  of  flourishing  orchards  and 
gardens.     Its  present  population  is  estimated  at  18,000. 

"  There  is  a  large  field  to  the  west  of  the  town  buildings,"  says  Dr. 
Bliss,  «  which  has  the  genuine  Tell  slope,  and  a  cutting  near  its  base  has 
already  revealed  a  splendid  mud  brick  wall  in  situ  with  early  pottery  in 
connection.  This  I  take  to  be  the  old  city  wall,  and  doubtless  precious 
remains  lie  concealed  under  the  barley  field  beyond." 1 

Gaza  was  the  last  of  the  important  towns  on  the  highway  to 
the  desert,  and  hence  the  outfitting  station  for  caravans  and 
armies  moving  southward,  as  well  as  the  supply  depot  for 
those  coming  up  from  Egypt.  Thus,  in  virtue  of  its  command- 
ing position,  it  was  the  gateway  to  Africa  on  the  south  and 
Syria  on  the  north. 

Evidences  of  the  great  antiquity  and  importance  of  Gaza  are 
furnished  by  the  Minnean  inscriptions  of  Arabia ; 2  the  records 
of  Thotmes  III.  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty ;  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures.  In  each  of  these  records  the  name  with 
slight  modifications,  is  the  same.  In  Deut.  ii.  23,  it  is  written 
"Azzah." 

This  frontier  city  of  Philistia  was  taken  by  Joshua  and  appor- 
tioned to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Not  long  after  the  death  of  Joshua 
it  was  retaken  by  the  Philistines  and  remained  in  their  hands 
until  the  reign  of  David.  (Josh.  x.  41,  xv.  47  ;  i  Chron.  xviii. 
i.)  In  the  period  of  the  Judges,  Samson  carried  off  one  of  the 
double  gates  of  the  city  and  left  it  on  the  top  of  a  neighboring 
hill.  Gaza  was  also  the  place  of  Samson's  imprisonment,  and 
here  he  overwhelmed  the  Philistine  nobles,  with  himself,  in  one 
common  destruction,  by  pulling  down  the  pillars  of  the  great 
house  in  which  a  crowd  of  revellers  were  assembled  to  make 
sport  of  him.  (Judges  xvi.  29,  30.)  Gaza  is  mentioned  but 
once  in  the  New  Testament.  The  reference  is  in  connection 
with  the  instructions  given  to  Philip.  (Acts  viii.  26.)  During 
its  long  history  this  stronghold  of  the  border  has  yielded  in 

1  Recent  Research  in  Bible  Lands,  p.  40.     »  Ibid.,  pp.  n,  143. 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     93 

turn  to  almost  all  the  great  conquerors  of  the  world — including 
Thotmes  III.,  Rameses  II.,  Joshua,  David,  Alexander  the  Great, 
Pompey,  Omar,  Saladin,  Richard  of  England,  and  Napoleon. 

Outside  of  this  group  of  chief  cities  there  are  several  towns 
of  importance  on  the  Philistine  plain,  which  we  briefly  notice 
in  order  of  succession,  beginning  at  the  north. 

(6)  Jabneel  or  Jabneh  (Joshua  xv.  1 1 ;   2  Chron.  xxvi.  6), 
has  been  identified  with  the  modern  village  of  Yebna,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Nahr  Rubin,  three  miles  from  the  sea.     Its 
Greek  name  was  Jamnia.     It  was  an  important  Jewish  town  in 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees  and  the  seat  of  the  Sanhedrin  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

(7)  Libnah,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  is  mentioned 
several  times  in  the  Old  Testament.     The  site  is  not  definitely 
known.     The   best   modern   authorities   have   pronounced  in 
favor  of  Tell  es  Safi,  whose  white  cliffs  may  have  suggested  the 
name.     Dr.  Thompson  thinks  it  may  be  identical  with  Yebna. 
(Joshua  x.  29-39,  xii.  15,  xxi.  13;   2  Kings  viii.  22,  xix.  8; 
i  Chron.  vi.  57;  2  Chron.  xxi.  10;  Isa.  xxxvii.  8;  Jer.  Hi.  i.) 

(8)  Makkedah. — The  village  of  Mughar,  eight  miles  south- 
east of  Ramleh,  has  been  identified  by  Captain  Warren  with 
Makkedah,  the  hiding-place  of  the  fugitive  kings  of  the  Amorites 
after  the  battle  of  Gibeon.    (Joshua  x.  16-26.)    The  name  sig- 
nifies the  place  of  the  caves.     This  identification  has  been  con- 
firmed by  the  Survey  party,  "  who  found  that  at  this  site  only 
of  all  the  possible  sites  for  Makkedah  in  the  Philistine  plain  do 
caves  still  exist.     The  position  also  agrees  well  with  the  identi- 
fication of  the  towns  Gederoth,  Beth-Dagon  and  Noamah  men- 
tioned in  the  same  group  with  Makkedah."  1 

(9)  Migdal  (Joshua  xv.  37),  is  probably  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  Mejdel,  two  and  one-half  miles  inland  from  Askelon. 

(10)  Lachish. — In  the  light  of  recent  investigations  the 
identification  of  this  ancient  Amorite  town  with  Tell  el  Hesy  is 
confirmed  and  generally  accepted.     It  is  favorably  situated  at 

1  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  1 10. 


94  The  Land  of  Israel 

the  junction  of  two  wadies,  on  the  edge  of  the  Shephelah, 
eighteen  miles  northeast  of  Gaza,  or  nearly  half  way  between 
Gaza  and  Hebron. 

The  Tell  has  been  described  as  "  one  of  the  most  imposing  objects  on 
the  plain,  above  which  it  rises  to  a  height  of  nearly  120  feet.  Sixty  feet 
of  this  consists  of  an  artificial  mound  formed  by  the  decay  of  the  succes- 
sive cities  that  stood  upon  the  spot.  Nature  had  marked  it  out  as  the  site 
of  one  of  the  chief  fortresses  of  Southern  Palestine.  Immediately  under 
its  wall  is  an  abundant  spring  of  fresh  water,  the  only  fresh  water  to  be 
found  for  miles  around."  1 

Excavations  at  this  place  under  the  direction  of  the  Survey 
Fund  were  commenced  by  Professor  Petrie  in  1890,  and  con- 
tinued by  Dr.  Bliss  until  one-third  of  the  great  mound  was  laid 
bare,  from  top  to  bottom,  and  its  various  levels  were  exposed. 
In  the  superimposed  towns,  eight  of  which  were  clearly  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  diverse  collection  of  objects 
among  the  debris,  Dr.  Bliss  found  the  remains  of  walls  and 
towers,  storehouses,  ovens,  wine-presses,  a  public  hall,  private 
dwellings,  a  smelting  furnace,  weapons,  tools,  bronze  and  iron 
implements,  scarabs,  flints,  pottery,  and — most  valuable  of  all— 
a  clay  tablet  in  the  cuneiform  language  addressed  to  Zimrida, 
Governor  of  Lachish,  from  Egypt.  This  is  the  counterpart  of 
the  letters  found  at  Tell  Amarna,  in  Egypt,  in  the  year  1888, 
from  Zimrida  to  the  reigning  Pharoah,  whose  servant  or  vassal 
he  acknowledges  himself  to  be.  This  tablet  is  an  important 
link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  which  establishes  the  identity  of 
Lachish  with  the  foundation  city  of  this  series.  It  is  not  the 
only  evidence,  however,  of  its  great  antiquity.  Within  its  mas- 
sive brick  walls,  twenty-eight  feet,  eight  inches  in  thickness, 
were  found  Amorite  pottery  of  a  distinctive  type  and  many 
other  articles,  such  as  bronze  weapons  and  tools,  having  the 
undoubted  characteristics  of  a  Pre-Israelite  age.  Here,  then, 
we  may  confidently  affirm,  has  been  laid  bare  one  of  the  long 
buried  cities,  which  was  captured  by  Joshua :  and  which  the 
1  Prof.  Sayce,  N.  Y.  Independent,  Aug  28th,  1890. 


u 


u 


u 


. 


Maritime  Plain  South  of  Mount  Carmel     95 

faim-hearted  spies  of  a  generation  before  described  as  "walled 
up  to  heaven."  (Joshua  x.  31,  32;  Deut.  i.  28.)  The  prob- 
able date  of  the  original  occupation  of  this  foundation  city  is 
fixed  by  Drs.  Petrie  and  Bliss  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  before  Christ.  There  is  evidence  also  that  four 
distinct  buildings  and  destructions  of  the  series  of  great  walls 
took  place  before  the  Israelite  invasion.  A  later  record  of  its 
restoration  as  a  garrison  town  by  Rehoboam,  King  of  Judah,  is 
given  in  2  Chron.  xi.  9.  In  its  subsequent  history  Lachish  ap- 
pears as  one  of  the  "  fenced  cities  of  great  strength  "  which  held 
out  against  the  forces  of  Sennacherib  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  9),  and 
also  against  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7).  A  collection  of 
Assyrian  slabs  in  the  British  Museum,  which  bears  the  name 
^of  Sennacherib,  gives  a  vivid  representation  in  detail  of  the  be- 
sieged city  and  its  defences.  "  The  details  of  the  situation  of 
the  city  as  shown  there  are  exactly  in  accord  with  the  point  of 
view  from  the  southern  side;  and  the  resemblance  strongly 
suggests  that  the  royal  scribe  or  artist  made  sketches  during 
the  campaigns  for  the  future  sculptures."  l  The  higher  levels 
of  the  Tell  furnish  evidence  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization 
and  occupation.  It  has  been  a  ruined  heap  since  the  fifth 
century  A.  D. 

(i  i)  Eglon. — Three  miles  northwest  of  Tell  el  Hesy  is  a  low 
mound  of  shapeless  ruins  similar  in  appearance,  that  still  bears 
the  name  of  Ajlan.  This  evidently  marks  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Eglon,  another  of  the  confederate  cities  of  the  Amorites. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  Joshua  immediately  after  the  capture 
of  Lachish.  (Josh.  x.  34.) 

(12)  Gerar. — The  site  of  Gerar  has  been  found  at  Umm 
Jerar,  six  miles  south  of  Gaza,  in  a  valley  running  eastward 
from  Beersheba. 

"  There  is  little  to  describe  beyond  a  gigantic  mound  on  the  side  of  a 
deep,  broad  water  course  (Wady  Sheba)  in  the  midst  of  a  rolling  plain."8 
"  There  are  pits  in  the  valley  bed  whence  the  Arabs  obtained  water  even 

1  The  City  and  the  Land,  p.  202.  2  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  106. 


96 


The  Land  of  Israel 


in  summer.  If  the  wells  which  Isaac  digged  again  (Gen.  xxvi.  18)  were 
anything  like  the  pits  now  existing,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  the  Phil- 
istines filled  them  up  after  Abraham's  death."  1 

In  this  region  Abraham  sojourned  for  a  long  time,  and  the 
narrative  implies  that  it  was  the  birthplace  of  Isaac.  (Gen. 
xx.  15,  xxi.  34.) 

During  a  period  of  famine  in  the  mountain  districts  Isaac  re- 
turned to  this  rich  pasture  land  and  dwelt  in  Gerar  and  its  im- 
mediate vicinity.  (Gen.  xxvi.  1-22.)  The  springs  called 
"Esek"  and  "  Sitnah "  were  apparently  in  the  same  valley 
near  Gerar,  but  no  trace  of  such  names  has  been  found  by 
recent  explorers. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  whole  of  the  Philistine  Plain  bears 
evidence  of  a  thickly  populated  region  in  the  past,  and  ruins  of 
nameless  towns  are  found  all  over  its  widely  extended  surface. 
The  sites  of  several  ruined  towns,  long  without  inhabitants, 
have  also  been  found  along  the  "way  of  the  Philistines"  from 
Wady  el-Arish  to  Gaza. 

1  Conder's  Bible  Geography,  p.  42. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   SHEPHELAH 

THE  term  Shephelah,  as  used  by  the  latest  authorities  in 
Sacred  Geography,  applies  to  the  range,  or  rather  the  irregular 
mass,  of  low  hills  which  lie  between  the  Central  Range  of  the 
Mountains  of  Judah  and  the  Philistine  Plain. 1  It  belongs  to 
the  plain  rather  than  to  the  mountains,  and  in  some  places  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  its  higher  elevations.  From  the 
mountains,  however,  it  is  distinctly  separated  by  a  series  of  al- 
most continuous  breaks  or  depressions  500  to  1,000  feet  in 
depth. 

The  Shephelah  has  been  aptly  described  as  a  loose  gathering  of  chalk 
and  limestone  hills,  round,  bare  and  featureless,  but  with  an  occasional 
bastion  flung  well  out  in  front  of  them.  ..."  Altogether  it  is  a 
rough,  happy  land,  with  its  glens  and  moors,  its  mingled  brushwood  and 
barley  fields ;  frequently  under  cultivation,  but  for  the  most  part  broken 
and  thirsty;  with  few  wells  and  many  hiding-places;  just  the  home  for 
strong  border  men  like  Samson,  and  just  the  theatre  for  that  guerilla  war- 
fare, varied  occasionally  by  pitched  battles,  which  Israel  and  Philistia, 
the  Maccabees  and  the  Syrians,  Salad  in  and  Richard  waged  with  each 
other."  a 

Valleys  of  the  Shephelah. — There  are  six  noted  wadies 
or  valleys,  (wadies  among  the  hills,  and  valleys  in  the  low- 
lands) which  begin  their  course  in  the  Central  Range  and  cut 
their  way  through  the  Shephelah  to  the  plain.  These  are 
known  as  the  Valley  of  Ajalon  (Wady  Selman),  Valley  of 
Sorek  (Wady  es  Surar),  Valley  of  Elah  (Wady  Sunt),  Valley 

1  For  full  discussion  in  ref.  to  usage  of  the  term  in  Old  Test.  Septuagint 
and  Talmud  see  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  209. 
*  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  209. 

97 


98 


The  Land  of  Israel 


of  Zephathah  (Wady  el  Afranj),  Wady  el  Hesy  (Wady  el 
Jizair),  and  Wady  esh  Sheriah. 

Each  of  these  afford  passage-ways  into  the  heart  of 
the  mountain  strongholds  of  Judea,  and  each  has  its 
distinct  characteristics  and  historical  associations. 

"  To  realize  these  valleys  is  to  understand  the  wars  that  have 
been  fought  on  the  western  watershed  of  Palestine  from  Joshua's 
time  to  Saladin's."  * 

i.  The  Valley  of  Ajalon. — The  northern  border  of  this 
valley  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit,  in  this  direction,  of  the 
Shephelah.  Its  identity  with  the  vale  now  called  Merj-Ibn- 
Omier  is  established  with  certainty  by  the  location  of  the  town 
Ajalon  (Yalo)  on  its  southern  slope,  and  by  the  recent  discovery 
of  the  site  of  Gezer  at  its  mouth. 

It  is  a  broad,  green  upland  vale,  which  gradually  opens  out 
into  the  great  plain  with  its  mouth  inclined  slightly  northward, 
toward  Lydda.  Three  wadies  from  the  height  of  Benjamin 
converge  in  its  upper  basin,  and  from  it,  by  way  of  these  narrow 
water  courses,  three  ancient  roadways  lead  up  to  the  city  of 
Jerusalem.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  route  by  way  of 
the  Beth-heron  pass  to  the  plateau  of  El  Jib  or  Gibeon  five 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  "This  has  always  been  the  easiest 
passage  from  the  coast  to  the  capital  of  Judea.  Throughout 
history  we  see  hosts  swarming  up  this  avenue,  or  swept  down 
it  in  flight."  2  Down  this  pass  and  through  this  valley  Joshua 
pursued  the  fleeing  hosts  of  the  Amorites  on  that  memorable 
day  when  he  commanded  the  "sun  to  stand  still  upon  Gibeon 
and  the  moon  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon."  (Josh.  x.  10-14.) 

Up  the  same  valley  on  several  occasions  the  maraudii  g  hosts 
of  the  Philistines  found  their  way  to  the  very  heart  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Israel,  and  on  two  occasions  were  driven  down  it  with 
great  slaughter — once  by  Saul  and  Jonathan  and  again  by 
David,  "who  smote  them  from  Gibeon  until  thcu  come  to 
Gezer."  (i  Sam.  xiv.  31 ;  2  Sam.  v.  25.)  In  the  Maccabean 

1  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  209.  8  Ibid.,  p.  210. 


The   Shephelah  99 

wars  this  valley  was  the  route  by  which  Jonathan  led  his  forces 
down  to  the  plain  in  the  campaign  which  gave  Joppa  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jews ;  and  anon,  when  the  tide  turned,  it  was  the 
route  by  which  the  Syrians  swept  up  to  the  plateau  on  which 
Jerusalem  stood.  In  the  year  66  A.  D.  a  Roman  army  under 
Cestius  Gallus  was  driven  down  this  rugged  defile  to  Ajalon  by 
a  host  of  avenging  Jews,  and,  as  in  the  past,  multitudes  per- 
ished in  the  headlong  flight.  Centuries  afterward  Godfrey  d' 
Bouillion  led  the  first  army  of  the  Crusaders  up  the  same 
rugged  passage-way  to  the  walls  of  the  Holy  City.  "  Up  none 
of  the  other  valleys  of  the  Shephelah,"  says  Dr.  Adam  Smith, 
"has  history  surged  as  up  and  down  Ajalon  and  past  Gezer, 
for  none  are  so  open  to  the  north,  nor  present  so  easy  a  passage- 
way to  Jerusalem." 

It  has  been  frequently  assumed  by  modern  writers  that  the 
apostle  Paul  was  taken  under  guard  from  Jerusalem  to  Caesarea 
by  this  route,  but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  shorter  and  more 
northerly  route  by  way  of  Gophna  was  followed  to  Antipatris 
on  the  plain.  The  sites  of  historic  interest  in  the  valley  are : 

Ajalon  (Yalo) — frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  also  on  the  Tell  Amarna  tablets ;  Jimzu  or  Gimzo 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  18)  ;  Beit  Nuba,  near  Yalo,  the  place  of  en- 
campment of  King  Richard  of  England ;  Amwas  or  Emmaus 
(Nicopolis)  a  short  distance  west  of  Yalo,  is  mentioned  in  the 
book  of  Maccabees,  (i  Mac.  iii.  40.)  The  site  does  not  corre- 
spond with  the  location  of  the  town  of  Emmaus  mentioned  in 
Luke  xxiv.  13. 

Gezer  or  Gazar,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  x.  33) 
was  situated  on  a  commanding,  oblong  hill — the  most  northerly 
outpost  of  the  Shephelah — which  commanded  the  entrance  to 
the  vale  of  Ajalon.  Its  identity  with  Tell  Jezer  has  been  es- 
tablished by  M.  Ganneau,  who  found  amid  its  ruins  in  1874  a 
bilingual  tablet  (Greek  and  Hebrew)  on  which  the  Biblical 
name  Gezer  is  deeply  carved,  "just  as  it  is  written  in  the 
Bible."  Major  Conder  found  indications  of  a  large  ancient 


100 


The  Land  of  Israel 


city  on  this  Tell.     In  its  vicinity  were  a  number  of  rock  tombs 
and  twenty-three  rock-cut  wine  presses. 

After  its  capture  by  Joshua  this  city  was  assigned  to  the 
Levites  of  the  Kohathite  family  (Josh.  xxi.  21),  but  afterward 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Philistines  by  the  Egyptians  at  a  later  period  and  given  as  a 
dower  to  Solomon's  Egyptian  bride,  (i  Kings  ix.  16.)  During 
the  Maccabean  wars  it  was  captured  by  Judas  Maccabseus  and 
strongly  fortified  to  guard  the  Jewish  possessions  of  the  plain. 

"  Within  sight  of  every  Egyptian  and  every  Assyrian  invasion  of  the 
land,  Gezer  has  also  seen  Alexander  pass  by,  and  the  legions  of  Rome  in 
unusual  flight,  and  the  armies  of  the  Cross  struggle,  waver  and  give  way, 
and  Napoleon  come  and  go.  If  all  could  rise  who  have  fallen  around  its 
base — Ethiopians,  Hebrews,  Assyrians,  Arabs,  Turcomans,  Greeks, 
Romans,  Celts,  Saxons,  Mongols, — what  a  rehearsal  of  the  Judgment  Day  it 
would  be  !  Few  of  the  travellers  who  now  rush  across  the  plain  realize 
that  the  first  conspicuous  hill  they  pass  in  Palestine  is  also  one  of  the 
most  thickly  haunted — even  in  that  narrow  land  into  which  history  has  so 
crowded  itself.  But  upon  the  ridge  of  Gezer  no  sign  of  all  this  now  re- 
mains, except  in  the  name  Tell  Jezer,  and  in  a  sweet  hollow  to  the  north, 
beside  a  fountain,  where  lie  the  scattered  Christian  stones  of  Deir  Warda, 
the  Convent  of  the  Rose."  » 

2.  The  Valley  of  Sorek. — This  valley,  or  wady,  descends 
to  the  low  hills  near  Ain  Shems  (Beth-shemesh).  From  this 
point  to  Yebna  (Jebneel)  it  is  called  Wady  Surar.  Thence  to 
the  sea  it  is  Nahr  Rubin.  Its  upper  basin,  which  is  a  half 
mile  in  width,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  three  wadies 
(Ghurab,  Surar  and  Najil).  This  was  the  home  of  Samson 
and  the  scene  of  many  of  his  famous  exploits.  Zorah,  his 
birthplace,  now  called  Surah,  is  situated  on  the  high  ridge 
which  borders  the  northern  side  of  the  valley.  (Josh.  xix.  41.) 
Eshtaol  lies  to  the  northeast  about  two  miles  away.  The  ruins 
of  Beth-shemesh,  two  and  a  half  miles  distant,  lie  on  a  knoll  op- 
posite Zorah  on  the  southern  slope.  (2  Kings  xiv.  13 ;  2  Chron. 

1  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  217. 


The   Shephelah  101 

xxviii.  18.)  "These  three  form  a  triangular  group  just  where 
the  stream  breaks  out  into  the  Shephelah  from  the  mountains 
of  Judah."1 

Four  miles  southwest  of  Zorah  on  the  crest  of  the  opposite 
ridge  are  the  ruins  of  Timnath,  where  Samson  sought  a  wife 
of  the  Philistines.  Timnath  is  740  feet  above  the  sea  and 
twenty-four  miles  from  Askelon.  The  hiding-place  of  Samson 
(Judg.  xv.  8)  was  the  cleft  or  cave  in  the  rock  £tam,  recently 
identified  with  Beit  Atab,  a  few  miles  eastward  among  the 
Judean  mountains.  The  camp  or  fortified  place  of  Dan,  was 
on  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  probably  between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol. 

The  railroad  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem  enters  the  Sorek  valley 
about  two  miles  south  of  Gezer  and  follows  it  to  Beth-shemesh. 
Thence  through  the  higher  reaches  of  Wady  Surar,  and  its  con- 
necting defiles  among  the  mountains,  it  passes  to  the  vale  of 
Rephaim  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem. 

3.  The  Valley  of  Elah.— This  has  been  identified  with 
Wady  es  Sunt  by  the  recovery  of  the  site  of  Shocoh  or  Socoh 
(Shuweikeh)  on  its  southern  border.  The  valley  is  narrow  and 
winds  among  the  hills  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  through 
the  Shephelah  region  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  Shocoh 
where  it  expands  into  a  fertile  plain  one-fourth  of  a  mile  in 
breadth.  In  this  plain  is  a  large  terebinth  tree  "  fifty  feet  in 
height,  with  a  spread  of  shade  seventy-five  feet  in  diameter,  and 
a  trunk  seventeen  feet  in  circumference."  2 

The  valley  of  Elah,  says  Major  Conder,  is  here  a  broad  open 
vale,  full  of  cornfields  and  bordered  by  rough  hills,  on  which 
grow  thick  copses  of  lentisk.  In  the  middle  of  the  valley  runs 
a  deep  trench,  some  twenty  feet  wide,  with  banks  ten  feet  high, 
a  water  course  worn  by  the  winter  torrents,  its  bed  strewn  with 
smooth  white  pebbles.  This  no  doubt  was  the  brook  whence 
David  took  the  five  smooth  stones  when  he  advanced  to  meet 
Goliath.  "  The  ridges  on  either  side  rise  to  a  height  of  about 

1  Henderson's  Geog.,  p.  90.  *  pjct.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  158. 


loa 


The  Land  of  Israel 


500  feet  and  have  a  steep,  uniform  slope,  so  that  the  armies 
ranged  along  them  could  see  the  combat  in  the  valley."  * 

"  And  Saul  and  the  men  of  Israel  were  gathered  together  and  pitched 
by  the  valley  of  Elah,  and  set  the  battle  in  array  against  the  Philistines. 
And  the  Philistines  stood  on  a  mountain  on  one  side,  and  Israel  stood  on 
a  mountain  on  the  other  side;  and  there  was  a  valley  between  them." 
(I  Sam.  xvii.  1-3.)  2  "  From  the  rear  of  the  position  of  Israel  the  narrow 
pass  goes  right  up  to  the  interior  of  the  land  near  Bethlehem ;  so  that  the 
shepherd  boy,  whom  the  story  represents  as  being  sent  by  his  father  for 
news  of  the  battle,  would  have  almost  twelve  miles  to  cover  between  his 
father's  house  and  the  camp."  3 

The  site  of  the  "  Hold  of  Adullam  "  has  been  recovered  by 
M.  Ganneau  on  a  rounded  hill  in  the  upper  stretch  of  the 
valley,  about  three  miles  southeast  of  Shocoh.  This  identi- 
fication has  been  approved  by  the  Survey  party.  The  modern 
name  is  Aid-el-ma,  in  which  it  is  possible,  says  Dr.  Smith  to 
hear  Adullam,  and  its  position  suits  all  that  we  are  told  about 
David's  Stronghold.  It  stands  well  off  the  Central  Range  and 
is  very  defensible. 

Tell  es  Safi,  at  the  outlet  of  the  valley  of  Elah,  is  one  of 


TELL   ES   SAFI  (GATH  ?) 

the  possible  sites  which  have  been  suggested  for  the  long-lost 
city  of  Gath  (see  p.  90).     It  is  a  conspicuous  eminence  of 

1  Bible  Geog.,  p.  96.  *  Porter,  in  Alexander's  Kitto. 

'Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  228. 


The   Shephelah  103 

white  limestone  formation,  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  a  famous 
castle,  known  as  Blanchgarcle  in  the  days  of  King  Richard  of 
England. 

Azekah  has  been  placed  by  some  authorities  at  Tell  Zaka- 
riya.  It  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Old  Testament.  See 
Josh.  xv.  35  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  9 ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  7,  and  Neh.  xi.  30. 

Tell  Zakariya  is  four  miles  east  of  Tell  es  Safi.  Recent 
excavations  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Bliss  have  disclosed  the 
remains  of  several  buildings,  one  of  which  contains  a  chamber 
about  eighty  feet  square.  A  series  of  small  caves  have  also 
been  opened  up  and  explored.  Scarabs,  and  pottery  of  Pre- 
Israelite  types  have  been  found  amid  the  debris. 

4.  Wady  el  Afranj. — The  long  defile  which  leads  into 
this  wady  begins  its  course  near  Hebron.  Among  the  low  hills 
it  widens  out  into  a  broad,  open  valley  apparently  identical 
with  the  valley  of  Zephathah.  On  the  plain  it  is  known  as 
Wady  Simsin.  It  enters  the  sea  a  few  miles  north  of  Ashdod. 
The  most  interesting  town  in  this  valley  is  Beit  Jibrin  which 
occupies  a  part  of  the  site  of  the  famous  city  of  Eleutheropolis 
of  the  Romans.  It  has  been  identified  also  with  the  ancient 
Betogabra.  Dr.  Thomson  and  other  authorities  regard  it  as 
the  site  of  the  city  of  Gath,  and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason 
for  this  identification.  The  modern  name  Beit  Jibrin  signifies, 
or  at  least  suggests,  "the  house  of  the  giants." 

Dr.  Robinson,  who  has  established  the  identity  of  this  site  beyond 
question  with  Eleutheropolis,  describes  the  ruins  as  apparently  of  different 
ages  and  more  extensive  and  massive  than  any  he  has  seen  in  Palestine, 
except  the  substructions  of  the  ancient  temple  at  Jerusalem  and  the 
Haram  at  Hebron.1  They  consist  of  an  irregular  fortress  of  great 
strength,  vaults,  arches,  walls,  broken  columns,  etc.,  etc.  In  the  chalk 
hills  that  enclose  the  valley  in  this  vicinity  there  are  a  large  number  of 
closely  connected  caverns  or  grottoes  of  artificial  construction.  "  The 
regularity  and  art  with  which  these  chambers  have  been  constructed  are 
admirable.  The  caverns  consist  of  round  vaulted  chambers,  twenty  to 

i  Rob.  Res.,  Vol.  II.,  p  25. 


104  The  Land  of  Israel 

twenty-five  feet  in  diameter,  supported  by  detached  pillars.  They  are 
thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  each  cave  is  lighted  from  above  by  a  well- 
like  opening." 1 

One  of  these  caverns  was  found  to  be  nearly  1 20  feet  in 
diameter  and  ninety  feet  deep. 

In  the  days  of  the  Roman  occupation  Eleutheropolis  was 
regarded  as  the  geographical  centre  of  the  Shephelah.  From  it 
roads  radiated  in  all  directions.  "It  was  the  half-way  house 
between  Jerusalem  and  Gaza,  Hebron  and  Lydda,  and  the 
Onomasticon  measures  from  it  all  distances  in  the  Shephelah." 

On  the  well-beaten  highway  through  this  place  from  Jerusalem 
to  Gaza,  in  all  probability,  Philip  crossed  the  path  of  the 
Ethiopian  Eunuch.  (Acts.  x.  26-29.) 

" This  route,"  says  Dr.  Robinson, "  lies  along  the  north  side  of  the  meadow- 
like  tract  of  Wady  el  Hesy  and  also  of  Wady  Simsin  for  a  short  distance 
below  the  junction.  In  the  gravelly  bed  of  these  valleys  we  saw  water 
percolating  through  the  sand  and  gravel  and  forming  occasional  pools. 
It  was  probably  on  this  road  Philip  found  the  Eunuch  and  baptized 
him."  * 

Mareshah,  identified  with  Maresh,  lies  less  than  two  miles 
south  of  Beit  Jibrin.  At  this  point  in  the  valley  King  Asa  met 
the  Ethiopian  host  under  Zerah  and  won  a  signal  victory,  pur- 
suing them  even  unto  Gerar.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-14.) 

"  Mareshah,''  says  Dr.  Smith,  "  was  an  important  and  a  powerful  town  as 
long  as  Beit  Jibrin  was  unheard  of;  when  Beit  Jibrin  comes  into  history 
it  disappears.  Can  we  doubt  that  we  have  here  one  of  those  frequent 
instances  of  the  transference  of  a  community  to  a  new  and  neighboring 
site.  If  this  be  so,  we  have  now  full  explanation  of  the  silence  of  the 
Old  Testament  about  Beit  Jibrin  ;  it  was  really  represented  by 
Mareshah."3 

5.     Wady  el  Hesy  or  Wady  el  Jizair,  rises  in  the  mountains 
a  few  miles  southwest  of  Hebron  and  finds  its  way  to  the  >,ca 
i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  I.,  p.  220.         9  Phys.  Geog.,  p.  119. 
a  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  233. 


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The   Shephelah  105 

between  Askelon  and  Gaza.  The  most  important  site  in  this 
valley  is  Tell  el  Hesy  (Lachish)  already  described  among  the 
cities  of  the  plain.  It  commanded  the  entrance  to  the  valley  at 
the  point  where  the  Shephelah  pushes  out  one  of  its  bastions,  or 
advanced  clusters  into  the  plain. 

6.  Wady  esh  Sheriah  skirts  the  southern  base  of  the  low 
hills,  finding  its  way  to  the  sea  a  few  miles  south  of  Gaza.  It 
is  joined  by  Wady  es  Seba  in  the  plain,  and  the  united  branches 
are  known  as  Wady  Guzzah.  This  valley  marks  the  southern 
border  of  the  Shephelah.  Below  it  the  hills  fall  away  gradually 
into  the  Negeb. 

The  region  of  the  Shephelah  is  dotted  over  with  the  ruined 
sites  of  towns  and  villages,  most  of  which  have  long  been  with- 
out inhabitants.  As  a  whole  it  has  been  the  theatre  of  many 
notable  events  in  human  history  both  sacred  and  secular.  Its 
possessors  held  all  the  gateways  of  approach  to  the  Holy  City 
from  the  west ;  and  yet  there  are  but  few  instances  on  record  in 
which  the  upper  stretches  of  the  mountain  stronghold  above  it 
were  forced  in  presence  of  a  determined  foe.  Perhaps  there  is 
no  instance  of  a  more  persistent  attempt  to  penetrate  these 
defiles  than  in  the  days  "when  all  the  Shephelah  rang  with  the 
exploits  of  Richard,"  the  Lion-hearted  King  of  England;  but 
with  all  his  courage  and  persistency  he  could  not  drive  back  the 
forces  which  held  the  heights  of  Benjamin  and  Judah. 

Addenda  : — The  excavations  at  Tell  es  Safi,  during  the  summer 
of  1899,  disclosed  the  outlines  of  an  ancient  city  (400  x  200  yds.), 
with  walls  in  situ  12  feet  thick  and  33  in  height.  On  the  north- 
east plateau  Dr.  Bliss  uncovered  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
Canaanite  temple,  or  high  place,  in  which  he  found  three  (3)  stand- 
ing stones  or  menhirs,  imbedded  in  a  layer  of  pre-Israelite  pottery 
and  set  in  a  line  directly  east  and  west.  No  inscriptions  were  found 
which  positively  identifies  the  city  with  Gath  ;  but  Dr.  Bliss  con. 
eludes,  from  the  study  of  thousands  of  potsherds  and  other  objects 
taken  from  the  d&ris,  that  it  is  as  "  old  as  Gath,  and  must  have  been 
fortified  when  Gath  was  made  a  city  of  defence."  (Oct.  Quarterly, 
1899.) 


The  Second  Longitudinal  Section 

The  Subdivisions  suggested  by  the  special  features  of  this 
section  are : 

The  Mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Galilee. — The  Plain  of 
Esdraelon. — The  Mountains  of  Ephraim. — The  Mountains  of 
Benjamin. — Jerusalem  and  its  Environs. — The  Mountains  of 
Judah. — The  Negeb,  or  South  Country. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   MOUNTAINS   OF   LEBANON   AND   GALILEE 

(Consult  maps  i  and  4.) 
I.  LEBANON. — Or  its  equivalent  expression  Mount 
Lebanon — is  a  collective  term  applied  to  the  high  mountains 
of  the  Lebanon  range.  The  northern  boundary  of  this  elevated 
tract  is  the  valley  of  the  Nahr  el  Kebir,  which,  as  already 
noted,  has  been  identified  with  "the  entering  in  of  Hamath." 
The  deep  gorge  of  the  Litany  river  may  be  regarded  as  its 
boundary  line  on  the  south.  Throughout  its  extent,  a  distance 
of  nearly  100  miles,  Lebanon  is  a  continuous  dorsal  ridge  with 
an  average  height  of  7,000  feet.  Its  highest  elevations  are  in 
the  northern  portion  where  the  Dhar  el  Khodib,  Jebel  Muk- 
mul,  and  other  associated  peaks,  rise  to  the  height  of  more 
than  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  an  open  question  whether 
the  word  Lebanon,  signifying  the  White  Mountain,  has  been 
derived  from  the  appearance  of  its  snowy  summits ;  or  from 
its  rugged  masses  of  white  limestone  rock,  which  are  even 
more  conspicuous,  as  seen  from  below.  The  eastern  declivity 
of  Lebanon  is  steep,  rugged  and  for  the  most  part  uncultivated : 

106 


The  ^Mountains 


The  Mountains  of  Lebanon  107 

the  western  is  gradual,  and  presents  a  wonderful  variety  of 
scenery  and  production.  From  one  outlook  on  this  slope 
Doctor  Thomson  counted  more  than  sixty  towns  and  villages. 
In  the  Lebanon  District  there  are  1,200  prosperous  villages 
most  of  which  are  on  the  western  side  of  the  mountain  at  an 
elevation  ranging  from  sea  level  to  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet. 

From  time  immemorial  the  beauty,  the  sublimity,  the  match- 
less fertility,  the  salubrious  climate  and  the  grand  scenery  of 
this  goodly  mountain  have  been  celebrated  in  story  and  song. 
"  Along  its  base  eternal  summer  smiles  :  and  along  its  summit 
10,000  feet  overhead,  rests  eternal  snow.  Between  the  two  ex- 
tremes flourish  the  vegetation,  fruit  and  flowers  of  all  climes."  l 
Of  this  favored  region  Professor  Rawlison  says : 

The  scenery  is  throughout  most  beautiful.  Garden  cultivation  carpets 
the  base  of  the  mountain :  above  this  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  broad  fringe 
of  olive  groves;  higher  up  the  hillsides  are  carefully  terraced,  not  an  inch 
of  ground  being  wasted :  and  among  sharp  cliffs  and  pointed  rocks  of  a 
grey-white  hue  are  strips  of  cornfields,  long  rows  of  dwarf  mulberries,  figs, 
apricots,  apples,  walnuts,  and  other  fruit  trees.  Gorges,  ravines,  charm- 
ing glens,  deep  valleys,  diversify  the  mountain  sides ;  here  and  there  are 
tremendous  chasms,  with  precipices  that  go  sheer  down  for  a  thousand 
feet ;  tiny  rivulets  bound  and  leap  from  rock  to  rock  and  from  terrace  to 
terrace,  forming  chains  of  cascades  refreshing  and  fertilizing  all  around. 
In  the  deep  gorges  flow  copious  streams,  shaded  by  overhanging  woods 
of  pines  or  cedars ;  and  toward  the  summit  are  in  several  places  magnifi- 
cent cedar  groves,  remnants  of  the  primeval  forest  which  once  clothed  the 
greater  part  of  the  mountain.  a 

Lebanon  is  mentioned  sixty-eight  times  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  in  every  case  the  reference  is  to  some  of  its  natural 
features.  "They  speak  of  the  head,  the  countenance,  the 
sides,  the  roots  of  Lebanon :  and  of  the  snow,  and  the  streams 
that  run  among  its  valleys.  They  sing  of  the  glory  of  Lebanon 
and  the  smell  of  its  forests — the  cedar,  the  fir,  the  pine  and  the 
box  together;  and  of  its  birds  which  sing  among  the 

1  Dr.  J.  L.  Porter,  Pulpit  Treasury,  1884,  p.  455. 

2  Story  of  Phoenicia,  p.  18. 


108  The  Land  of  Israel 

branches."  l  This  fact  together  with  the  absence  of  any  men- 
tion of  ancient  cities  or  towns,  apart  from  Phoenicia,  would 
seem  to  imply  that  Lebanon  was,  for  the  most  part  in  its  forest 
glory  before  the  age  of  David  and  Solomon. 

Cedars  of  Lebanon. — The  cedar  groves  which  crowned 
the  higher  levels  of  the  timber  belt  have  always  been  regarded 
as  the  chief  glory  of  Lebanon.  From  the  far-remote  period  of 
the  reign  of  Naram  Sin  they  were  prized  above  all  the  trees  of 
the  wood,  and  were  carried  away  from  these  rugged  slopes  to 
adorn  kings'  houses.  In  the  British  Museum  may  be  seen 
fragments  of  cedar  wood  found  by  Mr.  Layard,  which  had  been 
built  into  the  palaces  of  Nineveh  more  than  3,000  years  ago. 
Of  this  choice  timber  David's  palace  on  Mount  Zion  was  built. 
Armies  of  skilled  workmen  were  afterward  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  Hebrew  officers  to  cut  and  hew  cedar  beams  on 
Lebanon  to  be  used  in  the  building  of  the  first  and  second 
temples.  These  were  delivered  at  the  coast  and  thence  were 
floated  down  in  rafts  to  the  harbor  of  Jaffa. 

It  is  a  common  impression  that  the  cedar  has  disappeared 
from  Lebanon,  except  in  one  or  two  jealously  guarded  groves  ; 
but  Dr.  H.  W.  Jessup,  an  authority  on  this  point,  mentions 
eleven  different  groves  which  he  has  visited.  These  are : 

1.  The  ancient  '  Cedars  of  the  Lord '  above  Bsherreh,  three  hundred 
and  ninety-three  in  number. 

2.  The  grove  at  the  fountain  of  Ehden,  fifty  trees.     3.     The  great 
grove  between  El  Hadeth  and  Niha,  numbering  tens  of  thousands  of 
trees,  covers  an  area  of  nearly  twelve  miles.     4.     A  small  grove  farther 
south  on  the  summit  and  brink  of  the  precipice. 

5.  The  scattered  trees  above  Duma.  6.  The  Ain  Zehalteh  grove  of 
ten  thousand  trees,  cut  down  by  Murad  Akil,  and  now  growing  up  again. 
7.  A  small  grove  on  the  cliff  overhanging  El  Meduk.  8.  A  small 
cluster  near  Kulat  el  Bizzeh.  9.  The  fine  grove  of  Masir  el  Fukhhar, 
about  three  hundred  trees,  some  of  great  si/.c.  10.  The  forest  of  Jird  el 
Baruk,  thousands  of  trees.  II.  The  eastern  grove  of  Baruk,  about  two 
hundred  trees.3 

1  The  Land  and  Book,  p.  139.  «  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  26. 


The  Mountains  of  Lebanon  109 

In  many  of  the  public  gardens  and  parks  of  Europe  majestic 
cedars  are  growing  from  seeds  or  young  trees,  brought  over  by 
the  Crusaders  or  moden.  travellers  from  Mount  Lebanon. 

The  principal  rivers  on  the  western  slope  have  been  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  description  of  the  Phoenician 
plain.  All  of  these  swiftly-flowing  streams  rise  amid  the  snow 
fields  of  Lebanon  and  find  their  way  down  to  the  plain  through 
ever  deepening  chasms  in  the  mountain  side.  The  gorges  of 
the  Kadisha  and  the  Litany  are  specially  notable  for  their 
depth  and  rugged  grandeur.  The  latter  has  cut  its  way 
through  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  romantic  regions  in  Syria. 
"  For  thirty  miles  or  more  it  flows  at  the  bottom  of  a  chasm 
so  deep  and  so  precipitous,  that  its  course  can  only  be  traced 
here  and  there  from  the  overhanging  brow  of  one  of  the  rocky 
eminences  which  close  it  in."  l  In  some  places  it  rushes  in  its 
impetuous  course  through  tremendous  chasms  whose  rocky 
walls  rising  nearly  a  thousand  feet  above  the  water,  approach 
so  closely  together  that  the  branches  of  trees  from  opposite 
sides  are  said  to  meet  and  interlock.  At  one  point  a  mass  of 
fallen  rock  has  formed  a  natural  bridge,  called  El  Kuweh,  a 
hundred  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream.  The  road  from 
Sidon  to  Banias  passes  over  this  bridge.  The  celebrated  for- 
tress known  as  Castle  Belfort  of  the  Crusaders  (Kulat  esh 
Shukif)  rises  conspicuously  from  the  summit  of  a  cliff  within 
the  great  bend  of  the  Litany  and  commands  an  extensive  view 
of  the  surrounding  country.  "  The  lofty  precipice  on  which  it 
stands  is  exceedingly  grand ;  the  castle  crowns  its  highest  pin- 
nacle, standing  upon  the  very  brink ;  so  that  a  stone  let  fall  from 
its  battlements  would  almost  drop  into  the  stream  below."  2 

The  largest  and  most  famous  natural  bridge  in  Lebanon 
spans  the  great  chasm  through  which  flows  the  Neba  el  Leben 
(Fountain  of  milk),  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Dog  river.  It 
is  called  Jisr  el  Hajr — the  Stone  Bridge.  Dr.  Thomson  de- 
scribes it  as  follows : 

1  Sinai  and  Pal.,  p.  492.  3  Robinson's  Phys.  Geog.,  p.  357. 


110 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"  The  height,  measuring  on  the  northern  side,  is  150  feet  above  the  bed 
of  the  stream ;  on  the  southern  side  it  is  about  half  that  height.  The 
span  is  over  160  feet,  and  the  curve  is  so  regular  and  clean  cut  that  one  can 
scarcely  believe  that  it  is  entirely  natural.  The  thickness  of  the  rock 
above  the  arch  is  thirty  feet;  and  the  breadth  on  top,  where  the  road 
passes  over  it,  from  ninety  to  150  feet.  There  is  an  excavated  amphi- 
theatre south  of  the  bridge,  about  300  feet  in  diameter,  and  enclosed  by  a 
perpendicular  wall  of  limestone  rock  about  100  feet  high."  1 

On  the  eastern  side  of  Lebanon  the  water  passes  through  un- 
derground channels,  or  dashes  down  the  numerous  torrent  beds 
which  furrow  its  declivities,  to  the  Coele  Syria  basin.  Zahleh, 
the  most  prosperous  town  on  this  side  of  the  range,  lies  at  the 
southern  base  of  Mount  Sannin,  3,100  feet  above  the  sea. 

Its  situation,  says  Dr.  Thomson,  is  exceedingly  picturesque.  "  There 
is  nothing  resembling  it  on  these  mountains.  The  town  occupies  both 
sides  of  the  valley,  which  widens  as  it  deepens,  and  finally  opens  out  upon 
the  plain  to  the  southeast.  Through  the  middle  of  the  valley  flows  the 
sparkling  little  river  of  el  Burduny,  which  descends  from  the  southeast 
end  of  Jebel  Sunnin ;  and  after  contributing  to  the  wants  of  the  town,  its 
life-giving  waters  are  distributed  over  a  wide  area  of  vineyards,  gardens, 
and  cultivated  fields  on  the  plain  of  el  Buka'a  below.  The  houses  are 
built  upon  the  sloping  declivities  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  rise,  tier 
above  tier,  far  up  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain."  * 

Zahleh  owes  its  prosperity  mainly  to  the  labors  of  missionaries 
from  England  and  the  United  States,  who  have  made  it  a 
centre  of  education  and  Christian  influence. 

It  has  churches,  mission  schools  of  higher  and  lower  grades  ; 
and  manufacturies  of  various  kinds  have  been  successfully 
established.  The  inhabitants  of  Zahleh,  numbering  upward  of 
15,000,  are  almost  wholly  Christian. 

The  French  carriage  road  over  Lebanon,  from  Beirut  to 
Damascus,  is  the  recognized  line  of  division  between  the 
Maronite  and  Druse  districts  of  Lebanon.  The  former  lies  to 
the  north  and  the  latter  to  the  south  of  the  road. 


1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  228. 


1  Ibid.,  p.  199. 


The  Mountains  of  Galilee  111 

2.  The  Mountains  of  Galilee. — This  designation  ap- 
plies to  that  portion  of  the  range  which  extends  from  the  gorge 
of  the  Litany  to  the  border  of  the  Esdraelon  plain. 

On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the  Jordan  valley :  on  the  west 
by  the  Tyrian  section  of  the  Phoenician  plain.  It  has  many  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  Lebanon,  but  is  a  broad,  depressed 
region  in  contrast  with  its  lofty  heights.  The  portion  which 
skirts  the  Jordan  valley  between  the  Lakes  of  Huleh  and 
Galilee  is  called  Mount  Naphtali  in  the  book  of  Joshua  (xx.  7). 
This  is  the  highest  part  of  the  Galilean  range.  Its  dominant 
peak  is  Jebeljermuk,  3,934  feet  above  the  sea.  Jebel  Jermuk 
is  twelve  miles  west  of  the  Jordan  on  a  line  about  midway  be- 
tween Huleh  and  Galilee.  .  .  .  North  of  Mount  Naphtali 
the  average  elevation  is  about  2,800  feet :  south  of  it  the  gen- 
eral level  is  less  than  2,000.  At  a  point  due  west  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee  the  plateau  is  only  1,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

This  district  as  a  whole  is  noted  for  its  beauty  and  fertility ; 
its  varied  and  picturesque  scenery.  It  is  broken  by  ridges  and 
valleys  in  alternate  succession,  with  here  and  there  park-like 
stretches  of  upland,  or  beautiful  mountain-rimmed  plains. 

It  is  well  supplied  with  springs  and  water  courses,  and  even 
in  its  present  condition,  justifies  all  that  has  been  written  about 
the  rich  portion  of  the  inheritance  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali. 
Lower  Galilee  included  the  southern  portion  of  the  highlands, 
as  well  as  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  the  low  country  border- 
ing the  sea  of  Galilee. 

"Over  the  most  of  Galilee,"  says  Dr.  G.  A.  Smith,  "there 
is  a  profusion  of  bush,  with  scattered  forest  trees — holly-oak, 
maple,  sycamore,  bay-tree,  myrtle,  arbutus,  sumac  and  others—- 
and in  the  valleys  olive  orchards  and  stretches  of  fat  cornlands. 
Except  for  some  trees  like  the  sycamore,  Upper  Galilee  is  quite 
as  rich.  It  is  an  undulating  table-land,  arable,  and  everywhere 
tilled,  with  swelling  hills  in  view  all  round,  covered  with  shrubs 
and  trees."1  "In  briefer  statement  Renan  describes  it  as  a 
1  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  419. 


112  The  Land  of  Israel 

country  very  green,  and  full  of  shade  and  pleasantness,  the  true 
country  of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  and  of  the  songs  of  the 
well-beloved."1 

Interspersed  Plains. — One  of  the  characteristic  features  of 
this  highland  region  is  the  series  of  basins,  or  elongated  plains 
which  usually  run  in  parallel  strips  from  east  to  west  between 
the  ridges.  The  largest  and  most  noteworthy  of  these  are  the 
plains  of  Ramah  and  Buttauf. 

The  Ramah  basin  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  southern  range  of 
Upper  Galilee,  a  little  north  of  the  latitude  of  Acre.  It  is  eight 
miles  long  and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  The  road  from 
Acre  traverses  the  length  of  this  plain. 

The  plain  of  Buttauf  (El  Buttauf),  lies  directly  west  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  "It  was  properly  the  plain  of  Zebulun ;  the 
Rimmon  of  that  tribe  being  still  recognized  in  the  Rummaneh 
of  this  plain.  It  is  without  doubt  the  great  plain  called  Asochis 
by  Josephus.  On  the  south  it  is  shut  in  on  its  southeastern 
part  by  a  steep  and  almost  isolated  ridge,  dividing  it  from  the 
lesser  plain  of  Turan  beyond;  and  ending  toward  the  west 
near  Rummaneh."  2 

The  plain  of  Turan  is  in  reality  a  branch  of  Buttauf  and  is 
sometimes  called  the  lower  Buttauf.  The  main  branch  is  about 
ten  miles  in  length  and  two  or  three  in  width. 

This  basin  is  the  granary  of  Galilee  and,  next  to  Esdraelon, 
it  is  the  richest  portion  of  the  country.  Its  drainage  is  toward 
the  river  Kishon  by  way  of  the  Wady  Melek. 

East  of  the  low  ridge  which  shuts  in  the  plain  of  Buttauf,  is  a 
wide  shelf  of  table- land  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee,  lying  nearly  1,000  feet  below. 

A  conspicuous  feature  of  the  ridge  which  overlooks  this 
stretch  of  table-land,  and  forms  its  western  border,  is  a  deeply 
indented  mass  of  rock,  called  "  Kurun  Hattin  " — the  "Horns 
of  Hattin."  This  is  the  traditional  "Mountain  of  the  Beati- 
tudes" (Matt.  v.  i),  but  the  real  site  is  probably  one  of  the 

1  Life  of  Jesus,  p.  96.  8  Robinson's  Phys.  Geog.,  p.  130. 


The  Mountains  of  Galilee  113 

lower  slopes  or  ledges  of  the  mountain  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret.  However  this  may  be,  Hattin  will 
forever  be  memorable  as  the  landmark  overlooking  the  spot 
where  the  army  of  the  Crusaders  made  its  last  stand,  and  was 
almost  annihilated  by  the  hosts  of  Saladin,  July  5th,  1187. 
Wady  Hamam  which  leads  down  from  this  elevation  to  the 
plain,  terminates  in  a  wild  gorge  flanked  by  perpendicular  cliffs 
over  1,000  feet  high  A  labyrinth  of  caves  cut  into  the  face 
of  the  rock  at  dizzy  heights  has  been  for  centuries  in  the  past 
an  impregnable  stronghold  of  defence  to  the  oppressed,  as  well 
as  a  favorite  hiding-place  for  outlaws  and  robber  bands. 

During  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great  a  large  body  of  des- 
perate men,  who  had  hitherto  defied  the  authority  of  Rome, 
were  at  length  destroyed,  or  driven  out,  by  soldiers  let  down 
in  cages,  which  had  been  suspended  from  the  cliffs  above. 
"These  storied  caves  still  remain,  extending  for  more  than  a 
mile,  and  many  of  them  can  only  be  reached  by  ropes."  l 

NOTEWORTHY  PLACES 

i.  Kedesh  of  Naphtali. — The  modern  village  of  Kades, 
five  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Huleh,  marks  the  site  of  this  famous 
city  of  the  Canaanites.  It  has  a  conspicuous  position  at  the 
end  of  a  low  ridge,  now  covered  with  ruins,  which  borders  the 
western  side  of  a  beautiful  upland  basin.  Its  elevation  above 
the  Jordan  plain  is  about  1,600  feet. 

"Just  below  the  city  gushed  forth  a  copious  spring.  Then  down  a 
gentle  slope  were  several  hundred  acres  of  olive  groves,  and  beyond  them 
a  rich  alluvial  plain  supplying  abundance  of  corn  and  vegetables.  Below 
the  rugged  brow  of  the  steep  ridge,  it  had  its  strip  of  marsh  land  of  in- 
comparable fertility.  Thus  they  had  every  kind  of  produce  at  their  very 
doors,  like  that  long  string  of  towns  which  studded  the  goodly  heritage  of 
Naphtali :  '  Satisfied  with  favor,  and  full  with  the  blessing  of  the  Lord, 
(Deut.  xxxiii.  23)  from  Chinnereth  to  Dan."2 

Kedesh  was  one  of  the  fenced  cities  in  Mount  Naphtali  which 
1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  244.  «  Ibid.,  p.  267. 


114 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"stood  still  in  their  strength "  after  the  decisive  battle  between 
Joshua  and  the  kings  of  the  northern  confederacy  at  the  waters 
of  Merom  (Huleh).  It  was  appointed  as  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
xx.  7)  :  and  was  allotted  to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Gershon. 
(Josh.  xxi.  32.)  Kedesh  was  the  home  of  Barak,  the  warrior- 
judge  of  Israel,  and  from  this  mountain  fastness  he  led  his 
hastily  gathered  forces  against  Sisera  on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
(Judg.  iv.  10.)  It  was  one  of  the  fortified  cities  taken  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  in  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  (2  Kings  xv.  29.) 

Hazor  has  been  identified  with  Hadireh,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel 
Hadireh,  three  miles  southwest  of  Kedesh.  It  is  directly  west 
of  Lake  Huleh.  A  rocky  hillock  with  a  few  ruins  are  the  only 
evidences  of  the  existence  and  former  glory  of  the  city  of  King 
Jabin,  which,  at  one  time,  was  the  head  of  all  the  kingdoms  of 
the  northern  confederates.  (Josh.  xi.  10,  n.)  It  was  the  only 
one  of  the  captured  cities  of  this  region  which  was  burned  by 
command  of  Joshua  (xi.  13).  The  city  was  subsequently  re- 
built and  reoccupied  by  another  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  the  op- 
pressor of  Israel  in  the  period  of  the  Judges.  (Judg.  iv.  2.) 
Hazor  was  selected  as  one  of  the  garrison  towns  of  the  north  by 
King  Solomon  and  a  part  of  the  levy  which  he  raised  in  Israel 
was  devoted  to  the  rebuilding  and  strengthening  of  its  fortifica- 
tions, (i  Kings  ix.  15.)  It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser. 

Edrei,  mentioned  in  the  list  with  Kedesh  and  Hazor,  is 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  a  ruined  site  known  as  Tell 
Khuraibeh,  about  three  miles  southeast  of  Kedesh.  (Josh. 
xix.  37.) 

Safed,  ten  miles  south  of  Kedesh,  is  situated  in  an  upland 
basin  2,775  ^eet  above  the  sea.  It  is  one  of  the  sacred  cities 
of  the  Jews  and  the  traditional  site  of  the  city  set  upon  a  hill 
to  which  Christ  referred  in  the  sermon  on  the  Mount.  Safed 
has  no  Scriptural  associations  apart  from  this  supposition. 

The  names  and  probable  sites  of  other  towns  which  have 
been  recently  discovered  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows : 


The  Mountains  of  Galilee  115 

Janoah  (Yanu)  seven  miles  east  of  Tyre  (2  Kings  xv.  19);  Migdal  el 
(Mujeidel)  ten  miles  east  of  Tyre  (Josh.  xix.  38) ;  Heleph,  now  Beit  Lif, 
eight  miles  south  of  Mujeidel  (Josh.  xix.  33);  Horem  (Khurbet  Ilarah) 
ten  miles  northeast  of  Kedesh  (Josh.  xix.  38) ;  Beth  Anatli  (Anitha)  five 
miles  west  of  Kedesh  (Judg.  i.  33) ;  Iron  (Yarun)  four  miles  south  of 
Beth  Anath  (Josh.  xix.  38)  ;  Beih-shemesh  (Kh  Shema)  three  miles  west 
of  Safed  (Josh.  xix.  38;  Judg.  i.  33)  ;  Ramah,  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
plain  of  Ramah  (Josh.  xix.  36) ;  En-Hazor  (Ain  Hazzur)  five  miles  north 
of  Iron  (Josh.  xix.  37) ;  Hukkok  ( Yakuk)  seven  miles  south  of  Safed  and 
six  west  of  the  north  end  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee  (Josh.  xix.  34)  ;  Zebulun 
(Neby  Sebalan)  at  the  eastern  base  of  Jebel  Jermuk  (Josh.  xix.  27). 

Gischala,  now  El  Jish,  five  miles  northwest  of  Safed,  was  a 
prosperous  city  in  the  time  of  Christ.  It  was  the  last  of  the 
cities  of  Galilee  to  hold  out  against  the  Romans. 

Upper  Galilee  was  renowned  for  its  strongholds.  In  the 
period  of  the  conquest  sixteen  of  the  nineteen  cities  mentioned 
in  Joshua  (xix.  35-38)  as  belonging  to  Naphtali  were  strongly 
fortified.  "In  the  time  of  Josephus  the  list  of  fortresses  is  a 
long  one,  and  some  of  them  will  be  famous  while  the  records 
of  the  Hebrew  nation  are  preserved." 

In  the  hill  country  of  Lower  Galilee  there  are  two  places, 
unknown  in  Old  Testament  history,  whose  names  are  indis- 
solubly  joined  with  the  name  and  story  of  Jesus — "the  Man  of 
Galilee."  One  was  His  early  home,  where  He  grew  up  with 
sinless  character  and  winsome  manners  from  infancy  to  mature 
manhood :  the  other  was  the  place  where  He  hallowed  with  His 
presence  the  cheerful  festivities  of  a  marriage;  and  "manifested 
forth  His  glory ' '  in  the  first  exercise  of  His  miraculous  power. 
These  places, — Nazareth  and  Cana  of  Galilee — rank  with  Beth- 
lehem and  Jerusalem  in  importance,  and  their  natural  features 
have  been  studied  with  unusual  interest  and  accuracy  of  detail. 

Nazareth. — There  never  has  been  any  question  concerning 
the  site  of  Nazareth.  It  nestles  in  a  broad,  green  valley  or  up- 
land plain,  in  the  southern  slope  of  the  last,  and  lowest  range 
of  the  Galilean  hills.  "Itself  resting  on  a_very  steep  slope,  it 
is  encircled  by  hills  on  all  sides,  leaving  an  undulating  saucer- 


116 


The  Land  of  Israel 


shaped  basin,  with  many  little  valleys  running  into  it  on 
sides  and  in  front  of  the  town.  .  .  .  The  enclosing  sides 
are,  toward  the  south  and  east,  well  cultivated,  corn  fields 
mingle  with  vineyards  and  fig  trees,  and  the  occasional  date 
palms,  which  here  reach  their  northern  limit,  are  marked  fea- 
tures in  the  home  landscape.  But  the  encircling  rim  is  bare, 
rocky,  and  in  winter  white  and  naked,  a  soft  chalky  limestone."  * 

Nazareth  is  1,100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  fif- 
teen crumpled  hills  which  "rise  around  it  like  the  edge  of  a 
shell  to  guard  it  from  intrusion"  are  400  or  500  feet  higher. 
It  is  twenty-one  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  seven- 
teen  from  the  lower  end  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee.  While  it  is 
true  that  none  of  the  great  roads  of  the  country  led  up  to  this 
sunny  nook, — and,  in  this  respect,  it  was  secluded, — it  was, 
nevertheless,  very  close  to  the  central  routes  of  travel  which 
communicated  with  the  outside  world. 

Just  below  it  was  the  broad  thoroughfare  of  the  nations  over 
the  plain,  intersected  by  the  great  trunk  road  running  north 
and  south.  On  the  other  side  of  Nazareth,  four  or  five  miles 
to  the  north  was  Sepphoris,  the  Roman  capital  of  Galilee,  where 
many  roads  centred ;  and  through  which  passed  the  well-worn 
caravan  and  military  route  from  Acre  to  the  trans- Jordanic 
towns.  The  town,  as  the  modern  traveller  sees  it,  lies  on  the 
western  side  of  the  enclosed  basin  and  extends  for  some  dis- 
tance up  its  slope.  "Its  streets  rise  in  terraces  and  the  flat- 
roofed  houses,  built  of  the  yellowish-white  limestone  of  the 
neighborhood,  shine  in  the  sun  with  a  dazzling  brightness, 
from  among  gardens  and  fig  trees,  olives,  cypresses,  and  the 
white  and  scarlet  blossoms  of  the  orange  and  pomegranate." 
Nazareth  is  to-day,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  a  quiet  rural 
town,  the  homestead  of  shepherds,  craftsmen,  vine  dressers 
and  tillers  of  the  soil.  The  present  population,  as  given  by 
Baedecker,  is  7,500  most  of  whom  are  of  the  Christian  faith. 

A  new  carriage  road   has   been  constructed   from    Haifa, 
>  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  283. 


The  Mountains  of  Galilee  117 

twenty-three  miles  in  length,  which  makes  Nazareth  easy  of 
access  from  the  coast.  The  so-called  "holy  places"  shown 
by  the  representatives  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  are 
clumsily-devised  modern  substitutions  for  realities  which  have 
passed  away  long  centuries  ago.  The  one  thing,  however, 
which  makes  Nazareth  and  all  its  surroundings  a  holy  place,  is  v 
the  life  once  manifested  here,  the  influence  and  blessed  memory 
of  which  can  never  pass  away. 

The  public  fountain  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  village,  known 
as  the  "fountain  of  Mary,"  has  been  from  time  immemorial 
the  one  unfailing  source  of  water  supply  to  its  inhabitants. 

This  overflowing  basin  is  the  only  thing  in  Nazareth  which 
can  be  directly  associated  with  the  home-life  of  Jesus.  Hither, 
without  doubt,  the  Virgin-mother  was  wont  to  come  nineteen 
centuries  ago  with  her  Divine  Child, — just  as  the  women  of 
Nazareth  come  to-day,  with  their  children  by  their  sides  or 
holding  to  their  hands, — to  secure  a  daily  supply  of  water  for 
their  households. 

"  This  path  under  the  olive  trees,  like  that  from  Bethany  round  the 
base  of  Olivet,  and  like  Jacob's  well,  is  one  of  the  few  where  we  may  be 
perfectly  sure  we  are  treading  for  the  moment  in  His  earthly  footsteps."  i 

The  ridge  which  rises  to  the  height  of  500  feet,  or  more,  x 
directly  behind  Nazareth  commands  one  of  the  most  extensive  * 
panoramic  views  in  Palestine.  Northward  it  includes  in  its 
reach  the  mountains  of  Naphtali  and  the  snowy  heights  of 
Hermon  ;  eastward  the  plateaux  of  Gilead  and  Bashan  ;  south- 
ward Tabor,  Little  Hermon,  Gilboa,  the  Esdraelon  plain,  the 
long  ridge  of  Carmel  and  the  highlands  of  Samaria  as  far  as 
Mount  Ebal ;  westward  to  the  Bay  of  Acre,  and  far  beyond  to 
the  horizon  line  where  sea  and  sky  appear  to  meet.  This  out- 
look is  the  only  place,  perhaps,  where — as  Dean  Stanley  sug- 
gests— the  three  sacred  m&untains,  Tabor,  Hermon  and  Car- 
mel are  conjoined  in  one  view. 

1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  235. 


118  The  Land  of  Israel 

«  Here  unchanged  and  unchangeable,  the  ancient  mountains  stand  up 
before  our  eyes,  as  once  long  ago  before  the  eyes  of  the  boy  Christ  on  the 
hilltop,  with  this  difference  only — that  the  scene  is  to  us  full  of  the  mem- 
ories of  His  own  life,  of  chapels  reared  to  consecrate  some  spot  where  He 
is  supposed  to  have  stood,  and  is  thus  more  sacred  for  His  sake  than  be- 
cause of  the  triumphs  or  woes  of  the  race  from  which  He  sprang."  J 

Above  the  line  of  houses  on  the  slope  of  this  ridge,  there  are 
several  precipitous  cliffs,  hidden  for  the  most  part  by  a  luxuri- 
ant growth  of  prickly-pear,  either  of  which  might  mark  the 
spot  where  the  bigoted  men  of  Nazareth  sought  to  cast  Jesus 
down  headlong.  The  traditional  site,  a  full  half-hour  distant, 
does  not  fulfill  any  of  the  conditions  of  the  narrative.  What- 
ever else  may  be  affirmed  of  it,  the  so-called  Mount  of  Precipi- 
tation is  not  "the  hill  whereon  the  city  was  built."  (Luke  iv. 
28-30.) 

Can  a  of  Galilee. — The  generally  accepted  site  of  Cana  is 
Kefr  Kenna,  five  miles  northeast  of  Nazareth.  It  is  on  the 
direct  route  from  the  home  of  Jesus  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and 
borders  the  southern  arm  of  the  plain  of  Buttauf.  Dr.  Zeller, 
long  a  resident  of  Cana,  describes  it  as  follows : 

"  Its  situation  is  particularly  suitable,  pretty,  and  healthy,  for  the  village 
lies  on  a  hill  gradually  sloping  down  toward  the  west,  so  that  the  houses, 
built  in  terraces  up  the  slope,  receive  the  cool  west  wind,  which  has 
through  the  plain  of  Buttauf  a  free  and  strong  current  over  the  village. 
On  the  south  the  village  is  separated  by  a  valley  from  the  higher 
mountains,  separating  it  from  Mount  Tabor  and  the  plain  of  Jezreel. 
At  the  south  of  the  village  is  a  copious  fountain  of  excellent  water. 
.  .  .  The  gardens  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  are  luxuriant,  and  the  pome- 
granates produced  there  the  best  in  Palestine." 

The  modern  village  has  a  population  of  600,  but  Dr.  Zeller 
makes  the  statement  that  there  are  sufficient  traces  that  in  for- 
mer times  it  was  at  least  thrice  as  large. 

Cana  was  the  home  of  Nathanael  (John  xxi.  2) ;  the  scene 
of  the  first  miracle  (John  ii.  n);  and  the  place  where  Jesus 
1  Conder's  Bible  Geography,  p.  147. 


The  Mountains  of    Galilee  119 

received  the  Nobleman  from  Capernaum  whose  son  was  healed 
in  accordance  with  His  word.  (John  iv.  46-54.) 

Khurbet  Kana  on  the  northern  side  of  the  plain  of  But- 
tauf,  nine  miles  distant  from  Nazareth,  has  been  regarded  by 
Dr.  Robinson  and  others  as  the  true  site  of  Cana  of  Galilee, 
but  recent  researches  have  brought  evidences  to  light,  which 
seem  to  give  additional  confirmation  to  the  arguments  and  the 
ancient  tradition  in  favor  of  Kefr  Kenna. 

El  Meshed,  the  probable  site  of  Gath-hepher  (Josh.  xix. 
13)  is  situated  between  Sepphoris  and  Kefr  Kenna,  three 
miles  north  of  Nazareth.  This  town  was  the  birthplace  of 
Jonah.  (2  Kings  xiv.  25.)  His  reputed  burial-place  is  shown 
on  a  hill  near  by. 

Canon  Tristram  regards  the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  identifi- 
cation of  this  place  with  Gath-hepher  as  very  satisfactory. 

Bethlehem  of  Zebulun,  mentioned  in  Joshua  xix.  15 ;  and 
Judges  xii.  8,  10,  is  seven  miles  northwest  of  Nazareth. 

Japhia  (Yafa)  mentioned  as  a  border  town  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  12)  is  two  miles  south  of  Nazareth.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  dreadful  massacre  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Vespasian. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE   PLAIN   OF   ESDRAELON 

THE  deflection  of  Mount  Carmel  breaks  the  continuity  of 
the  range  to  which  it  belongs,  and  opens  up  an  easy  passage- 
way from  the  Mediterranean  sea  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 
This  break,  or  intersecting ,  plain,  divides  naturally  into  three 
parts. 

At  Tell  el  Kasis,  nine  miles  from  the  sea,  a  spur,  or  outlying 
cluster,  of  the  Galilean  hills  closes  down  toward  the  ridge  of 
Carmel,  confining  the  valley  of  the  Kishon  to  a  narrow  pass 
scarcely  more  than  one  hundred  yards  in  width. 

The  first  division  of  the  Great  Plain  is  the  expansion  west  of 
this  pass.  This  properly  belongs  to  the  Maritime  plain,  and 
has  been  described  in  connection  with  that  section. 

The  second,  or  central  division,  is  formed  by  the  recession 
of  the  hills  on  either  side,  eastward  of  Tell  Kasis,  to  the  bases 
of  Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon.  It  is  a  broad,  undulating  plain, 
triangular  in  outline,  and  unbroken  by  ridges  or  deeply  cleft 
valleys. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  distinguished  from  its  outgoings  on 
either  hand  by  the  name  Esdraelon,  a  Greek  form  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Jezreel,  but  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is  called 
"the  Valley  of  Megiddo." 

The  third  division  is  broken  up  by  the  parallel  ridges  of 
Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon  into  three  nearly  equal  parts :  the 
middle  portion  being  the  famous  valley  of  Jezreel,  which  leads 
down  to  the  Jordan  valley. 

While  recognizing  the  close  connection,  historically  and 
otherwise  between  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of  this  plain, 
it  will  be  more  convenient  to  study  them  in  detail  as  separate 
divisions. 

120 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  121 

Esdraelon  Proper. — As  already  intimated  Esdraelon  is  a 
great  triangle  whose  western  apex  is  at  Tell  Kasis.  Its  longest 
side  reaches  to  Jenin  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  and  is  bordered 
by  the  mountains  of  Ephraim.  From  Jenin  to  the  hills  of 
Galilee,  a  line  skirting  the  western  bases  of  Gilboa  and  Little 
Hermon  may  be  regarded  as  its  eastern  side,  fifteen  miles  in 
length.  The  remaining  side  extending  along  the  hills  of  Gal- 
ilee to  the  point  of  intersection  with  the  eastern  side  does  not 
exceed  twelve  or  thirteen  miles. 

Gateways  of  Esdraelon. — These  historic  passage-ways 
have  been  happily  described  by  George  Adam  Smith,  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  entrances  are  five  in  number,  and  are  all  visible  from  Jezreel. 
Three  are  at  the  corners  of  the  triangle — the  pass  of  the  Kishon  at  Tell 
el  Kasis,  the  glen  between  Tabor  and  the  Nazareth  hills,  and  the  valley 
southward  behind  Jenin. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  way  of  advance  from  the  plain  of  Acre; 
Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles  from  which  Sisera  advanced,  lies  upon  it 

The  second  is  the  road  down  the  plateau  above  Tiberias,  and  Northern 
Galilee  generally ;  it  is  commanded  by  Tabor,  on  which  there  was  al- 
ways a  fortress. 

The  third  is  the  passage  toward  that  series  of  meadows  which  lead  up 
from  Esdraelon  into  the  heart  of  Samaria — the  Anabaseis  of  the  Hill 
country." 

The  other  two  gateways  to  the  Great  Plain  were,  of  course,  Megiddo 
and  Jezreel.  Megiddo  guarded  the  natural  approach  of  Philistines, 
Egyptians,  and  other  enemies  from  the  South;  Jezreel  that  of  Arabs, 
Midianites,  Syrians  of  Damascus,  and  other  enemies  from  the  east.1 

The  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  has  been  one  of  its 
distinguishing  features  from  time  immemorial.  Although  sadly 
neglected  it  is  still  a  prolific  source  of  supply  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land.  "Checkered  patches  of  wheat,  barley,  maize, 
millet,  sesame,  and  even  cotton,  with  broad,  dark-brown  strips 
of  fallow  land  intervening,  cover  the  surface ;  and  along  the 
hillsides  here  and  there  are  groves  of  fig  and  olive  trees, 

1  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  390. 


122 


The  Land  of  Israel 


descending  into  the  plain.  The  few  palms  at  Jenin,  the  fruit 
trees,  and  the  prickly-pear  hedges  surrounding  most  of  the  vil- 
lages on  the  heights,  add  variety  to  the  scene ;  still  not  a  quar- 
ter of  the  plain  is  under  cultivation,  and  the  remainder  is  ut- 
terly desolate."1 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  there  are  no  historic  nor  modern 
towns  on  the  broad  expanse  of  the  plain.  The  liability  to  in- 
vasion from  so  many  different  quarters  is  the  apparent  cause. 
At  the  present  time  those  who  cultivate  its  fertile  soil  live  in  vil- 
lages 'on  the  borders :  and  this  has  doubtless  been  the  policy  of 
all  who  have  drawn  their  supplies  from  it  in  the  centuries  past. 

The  Kishon,  and  its  numerous  tributaries  from  the  western 
slopes  of  Tabor,  Gilboa  and  the  hills  about  Jenin,  drain  the 
surface  of  the  plain  toward  the  Mediterranean. 

The  general  direction  of  the  Kishon  (Nahr  el  Mukutta)  is 
northwest.  A  portion  of  its  bed  is  frequently  dry  in  summer. 
Its  close  proximity  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim 
makes  it  liable  to  sudden  overflows  which,  as  in  ancient  times, 
sweep  everything  of  movable  character  before  them. 

Several  ancient  sites  whose  histories  are  connected  with 
Esdraelon  have  been  identified  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty. 
These  we  note  in  the  order  of  succession  beginning  at  the 
western  apex  of  the  triangle. 

1.  Tell  el  Kasis. — This  is  a  green,  flat-topped  mound, 
which  was  probably  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  or  fortification. 
It  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  over  against  the  generally 
accepted  location  of  the  sacrifice  of  Elijah  on  Mount  Carmel. 

Canon  Tristram  regards  the  name  ("  Mound  of  the  Priests  ") 
as  an  indication  of  the  exact  spot  where  Elijah  slew  the  priests 
of  Baal,  when  he  brought  them  down  to  the  "brook  Kishon." 
It  is  significant,  also,  that  the  Arabic  name  for  the  Kishon  is 
Nahr  Mukutta,  "the  river  of  slaughter." 

2.  Jokneam  of  Carmel.— (Tell  Keimum)  is  situated  at 
the  foot  of  a  high  bluff  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  ridge  of 

i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  209. 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  123 

Carmel,  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was  a  border  city  of 
Zebulun,  and  was  assigned  to  the  children  of  Merari  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi.  (Josh.  xii.  22,  xxi.  34.) 

3.  Megiddo. — The  probable  site  of  this  ancient  strong- 
hold, which  before  the  days  of  Joshua  had  given  its  name  to 
the  Great  Plain,  is  now  known  as  Lejjun.  It  is  about  six  miles 
from  Tell  Keimum  on  the  border  of  the  plain  and,  as  already 
noted,  guarded  the  approach  to  it  from  the  south.  "  The  line 
of  hills,  which  beginning  at  Carmel  thus  far  skirts  the  plain, 
here  makes  an  offset  toward  the  southwest ;  and  then  runs  on 
again  as  a  tract  of  lower  hills,  to  Jenin  or  beyond.  In  front 
of  this  offset  a  low  ridge  extends  out  for  some  distance,  leaving 
a  nook  behind  it,  in  which  are  the  remains  of  Lejjun.  .  .  . 
The  great  road  from  Ramleh  issues  from  the  mouth  of  a  valley 
in  this  nook,  and  immediately  divides ;  one  branch,  going  to 
Nazareth,  passes  down  by  a  ruined  Khan  and  bridge;  the 
other,  leading  to  Tabor  and  Damascus,  lies  about  forty  rods 
east  of  the  Khan."  l  Dr.  Robinson's  identification  of  Lejjun 
with  the  Roman  city  called  Legio  is  accepted  without  question. 
The  evidence  which  he  presents  in  favor  of  its  identification 
with  Megiddo,  seems  to  be  equally  convincing  and  has  been 
strengthened  by  recent  research.  Major  Conder  has  recently 
suggested  another  location,  known  as  Mujedda,  near  Bethshan 
as  a  more  probable  site,  but  the  weight  of  evidence,  as  well  as 
of  authority,  bears  heavily  against  this  supposition. 

Dr.  G.  A.  Smith  sums  up  the  argument  in  favor  of  Lejjun 
under  three  heads,  as  follows : 

(1)  It  is  close  to  Taanach,  the  location  of  which  is  not  disputed. 

(2)  The  waters  of  Megiddo  are  practically  Kishon. 

(3)  Lejjun  is  as  likely  to  give  its  name  to  the  plain  as  Jezreel  is,  and 
did  so  give  it  in  the  time  of  Jerome.2 

The  name  Megiddo  appears  frequently  in  the  Egyptian  rec- 
ords at  Karnak  and  elsewhere,  and,  except  in  one  instance, — 
1  Rob.  Researches,  Vol.  III.,  p.  116.  «  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  387-388. 


The  Land  of  Israel 

which  seems  to  be  due  to  ignorance  of  geographical  details, — 
the  descriptions  of  events  connected  with  it  correspond  with 
the  location  of  Lejjun. 

Three  great  battles  were  fought  in  front  of  Megiddo  in  an- 
cient times. 

The  first,  which  took  place  about  1600  B.  c.,  gave  Palestine 
into  the  hands  of  Thotmes  III.  and  his  successors.  The  sec- 
ond was  in  the  period  of  the  Judges.  From  Tabor  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  plain  the  forces  of  Barak  swept  down  upon 
the  army  of  Sisera,  and,  aided  by  a  terrific  storm  of  rain  and 
hail,  broke  their  serried  lines  and  won  a  signal  victory.  In 
that  awful  hour  "  the  mountain  torrents,  rapidly  swollen,  poured 
down  into  the  Kishon,  the  river  overflowed,  and  the  torrent 
swept  them  away  chariots  and  horses  in  helpless  confusion."1 
(Judg.  v.  20-22.) 

The  third  great  battle  at  this  place  was  more  than  six  cen- 
turies later.  It  was  a  contest  between  Pharoah  Necho  of  Egypt 
and  King  Josiah  of  Judah.  It  was  long  remembered  with  sor- 
row and  lamentation  in  Judah ;  for  here  the  good  King  Josiah 
was  mortally  wounded  in  his  chariot  by  the  Egyptian 'archers. 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  20-25.) 

Another  King  of  Judah,  Ahaziah,  died  of  his  wounds  in 
Megiddo.  He  was  stricken  by  the  avenging  hosts  of  Jehu  near 
Jezreel  and  fled  across  the  plain  to  this  city.  (2  Kings  ix.  27.) 

There  is  a  conspicuous  mound  (Tell  el  Mutasellim)  a  mile 
northwest  of  the  ruins  of  Lejjun,  which  commands  an  extensive 
view  of  the  region  around,  including  the  whole  of  the  Great 
Plain.  This  elevation  may  have  been  within  the  limits  of  the 
town  or  its  outlying  defences. 

4.  Taanach  (Tannuk)  retains  its  ancient  name  unchanged. 
It  is  four  miles  southeast  of  Lejjun  and  seven  miles  south- 
west of  Jezreel  (Zerin).  Some  scattered  ruins  on  a  hilltop, 
near  the  modern  village,  are  all  that  remains  of  ancient 
Taanach.  It  was  a  noted  stronghold  of  the  Canaanites 
1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  196. 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  125 

and  is  mentioned  five  times  in  Scripture,  in  connection 
withMegiddo.  (Josh.  xii.  21,  xvii.  n;  Judg.  i.  27,  v.  19;  I 
Kings  iv.  12.)  It  is  also  mentioned  in  the  Egyptian 
records  of  Thotmes  III. 

5.  Hadad-Rimmon,  now  known   as  Rummaneh,  is  a 
short   distance   northwest  of   Taanach.     In   this  place 
there  was  "  great  mourning  for  Josiah"  by  the  people 
of  Judah.      (Zech.  xii.  u.) 

6.  En-gannim,  now  Jenin,  a  town  of  Issachar  lies  at  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  great  triangle.     It  is  twenty  miles  from 
the  pass  of  Tell  Kasis  and  seven  miles  south  of  Jezreel.     It  is 
the  probable  site  of  "  Ginea,"  mentioned  by  Josephus,  which 
answers  to  En-gannim  or  garden  spring.     "Its  Hebrew  name 
has  been  changed — the  En  for  fountain  was  dropped,  and  the 
gannim,  gardens,  transformed  into  the  present  word  Jenin."1 

The  spring,  which  long  ago  gave  a  name  to  the  place,  and 
which  now  gives  life  to  the  gardens  of  this  prosperous  vil- 
lage, comes  from  a  valley  to  the  east  and  is  conducted  into  the 
midst  of  the  town  and  out  among  the  clustered  groups  of  fruit 
trees  which  partially  surround  it.  The  Scripture  references  to 
En-ganim  are  Josh.  xix.  2,  xxi.  29. 

7.  Jezreel. — The  modern  village  of  Zerin,  a  collection  of 
miserable  hovels,  occupies  the  site  of  this  ancient  city.     It  is 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  triangle  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of 
Jezreel.     It  has  a  slight  elevation  above  the  plain  on  a  ridge  or 
spur  of  the  mountain  of  Gilboa,  which  juts  out  toward  the 
northwest. 

Jezreel  was  the  royal  residence  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  and  has 
been  the  scene  of  many  thrilling  events  in  the  history  of  Israel. 
Its  associations  call  up  the  names  in  turn  of  Gideon  and  Saul, 
Elijah  and  Naboth,  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  Joram  and  Ahaziah ; 
and  of  Jehu  the  swift  avenger  of  the  crimes  committed  by  the 
bloody  house  of  Ahab.  Rock-cut  wine  presses  on  the  slope 
near  the  village  suggest  the  vineyard  of  Naboth  which  was 
hard  by  the  palace  of  Ahab.  To  secure  this  coveted  posses- 
»The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  172, 


126 


The  Land  of  Israel 


sion  he  caused  its  rightful  owner  to  be  put  to  death.  In  the 
fearful  retribution  that  followed  the  dead  body  of  his  own  son 
was  cast  into  this  plat ;  while  from  a  window  near  by  Jezebel, 
the  chief  instigator  of  the  crime,  was  thrown  down  by  her  own 
servants  to  meet  an  ignominious  death,  (i  Kings  xxi.  i  ;  2 
Kings  ix.  34.) 

8.  Shunem,  or  Sulem,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Arabs,  lies  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel.     It  is  three  miles  due 
north  of  Zerin  on  the  southwest  slope  of  the  ridge  of  Little 
Hermon.     There  are  some  mounds  in  the  vicinity,  but  no  ruins 
above  ground.     In  this  village  dwelt  the  Shunammite  woman 
in  whose  house  Elisha  was  always  a  welcome  guest.     As  an 
evidence   of  Divine  approval  of  this  kindness  her  son,  who 
had  been  suddenly  stricken  down  by  the  heat  in  the  harvest 
field,  and  had  afterward  died  in  her  arms,  was  restored  to  life 
in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  Elisha.     (2  Kings  iv.  8-27.)     It 
was  also  the  home  of  Abishag  (i  Kings  i.  34)  :  and  of  the  fair 
maiden  referred  to  in  Canticles  vi.  13. 

Shunem  was  the  place  of  encampment  of  the  Philistines  on 
the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Gilboa.  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  4.) 

9.  Chisloth -Tabor  (Josh.   xix.    12)  has   been  identified 
with  Iksal,  a  modern  village,  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
great  triangle.     No  historic  sites  have  been  found  on  its  north 
side,  unless  Major  Conder's  supposition  that  Sarid  (Josh.  xix. 
10-12)  is  identical  with  Tell  Shodud,  should  prove  to  be  cor- 
rect. 

Eastern  Extension  of  the  Great  Plain. — The  ridges  of 
Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon  run  side  by  side  from  Shunem  and 
Jezreel  to  the  border  of  the  Jordan  valley  dividing  this  section 
into  three  divergent  branches.  The  northern  branch  lies  be- 
tween the  mountains  of  Galilee  and  the  ridge  of  Little  Hermon. 
Mount  Tabor  is  included  in  this  portion  of  the  plain.  East  of 
Tabor  it  contracts  to  a  narrow  valley  (Wady  Bireh)  which 
descends  to  the  Jordan,  but  this  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a 
portion  of  the  plain.  Up  to  the  point  where  its  expansion 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  127 

ceases  the  trend  is  toward  the  west.  The  southern  branch  is 
an  embayed  plain  or  basin.  It  trends  toward  the  west  and  its 
waters  are  tributary  to  the  Kishon. 

The  central  portion  is  the  valley  of  Jezreel.  Although 
greatly  contracted  in  width  this  is  the  real  continuation  of  the 
Esdraelon  plain.  "  It  is  a  beautiful  meadow-like  expanse,  from 
two  to  three  miles  in  breadth  by  about  fifteen  in  length."  The 
brook  Jalud  follows  the  course  of  the  valley  and  drains  the  in- 
cline toward  the  Jordan  throughout  its  extent.  "  The  remark- 
able and  distinguishing  feature  of  these  three  portions  of  the 
plain  is,  that  while  both  the  northern  and  southern  decline 
toward  the  west,  and  their  waters  flow  off  through  the  Kishon 
to  the  Mediterranean  the  middle  arm  sinks  down  between 
them  eastward,  so  that  its  waters,  from  a  point  within  the  tri- 
angle, run  with  a  far  more  rapid  descent  to  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan at  Beisan."  (Rob.  Phys.  Geog.,  p.  132.) 

The  line  of  the  watershed  within  the  triangle,  to  which  Dr. 
Robinson  alludes  in  the  above  quotation,  runs  through  or  very 
near  to  the  village  of  Fuleh,  about  two  miles  west  of  Shunem. 

Fountain  of  Jezreel. — The  principal  source  of  the  Jalud  is 
the  famous  fountain  (Ain  Jalud)  which  issues  from  a  cave  at 
the  base  of  Mount  Gilboa,  a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  Jezreel. 
A  pool  fifty  feet  in  diameter  is  supplied  from  this  fountain 
head.  This  has  been  a  favorite  resort  for  herdsmen,  and  camp- 
ing-place for  caravans  and  military  bands,  in  all  ages.  Its 
identity  with  the  Spring  of  Harod  has  been  generally  admitted  : 
and  it  fits  in  exactly  with  the  narrative  of  Gideon's  campaign 
against  the  Midianites.  There  certainly  could  be  no  more 
likely  place  for  his  encampment  in  this  vicinity ;  nor  for  the 
testing  to  which  his  men  were  subjected  on  the  eve  of  the  bat- 
tle. It  is  stated  also  in  the  narrative  that  the  host  of  the  Mid- 
ianites were  on  the  north  side  of  them,  by  the  hill  of  Moreh,  in 
the  valley.  The  hill  of  Moreh  may  have  been  some  conspic- 
uous hillock  on  the  southern  slope  of  Little  Hermon,  or  the 
name  may  have  been  applied  to  the  whole  ridge.  (Judg.  vii. 


128  The  Land  of  Israel 

1-25.)  At  this  fountain  of  Jezreel  King  Saul  encamped  with 
his  army  before  the  disastrous  battle  in  which  he  and  his  son 
Jonathan  were  slain  on  the  "  high  places  "  of  Gilboa.  (i  Sam. 
xxviii.  4,  xxix.  i,  xxxi.  1-7.) 

Beth-Shittah  (Judg.  vii.  22)  is  probably  identical  with  Shutta, 
half-way  between  Jezreel  and  Bethshan. 

Bethshan. — A  flat-topped  mound  or  tell  in  the  lower  stretch 
of  the  valley  of  Jezreel  marks  the  site  of  this  ancient  strong- 
hold of  the  Canaanites.  Its  modern  name  is  Tell  Beisan.  It 
is  four  miles  from  the  Jordan  valley  and  commands  the  entrance 
to  the  Great  Plain  from  the  East. 

"  The  spur  of  rock  on  which  it  stands  projects  boldly,  as  if  an  outwork, 
beyond  the  east  end  of  Gilboa.  It  rises  almost  perpendicularly  300  feet 
above  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  leaves  a  strip  of  rich  luxuriant  plain, 
rather  more  than  three  miles  wide,  before  the  river  is  reached.  But  the 
old  city  was  not  confined  to  the  tell  on  which  its  fortress  stood.  The  ruins 
extend  over  a  surface  of  three  miles.  The  spot  is  not  only  in  shape  a 
miniature  Gibraltar ;  it  is  marvellously  favored  by  nature  in  other  respects. 
No  less  than  four  perennial  streams  flow  through  the  ancient  city,  dividing 
it  into  quarters.  .  .  .  The  ruins  surpass  any  others  in  Western  Pales- 
tine. There  are  several  noble  Roman  bridges  over  the  Jalud,  two  of  them 
tolerably  perfect;  a  very  fine  amphitheatre,  180  feet  in  diameter,  with  its 
seats,  corridors,  and  dens  for  wild  beasts  all  entire ;  a  large  Saracenic 
khan,  with  arches  and  pavements,  and  columns  of  black  basalt  and  white 
limestone  alternating ;  many  Roman  temples,  of  which  more  than  twenty 
tall  columns  are  still  standing  erect,  belonging  to  four  or  five  sumptuous 
edifices."  i 

For  a  long  time  after  the  conquest  this  important  fortress  was 
held  by  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i.  27)  and  here  the  mutilated 
bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were  fastened  to  the  city  wall. 
From  the  summit  of  the  mound  under  which  the  ruins  of  these 
walls  have  long  been  buried  may  still  be  seen  the  well-beaten 
thoroughfare  to  the  ford  of  the  Jordan,  over  which  the  valiant 
men  of  Jabesh  Gilead  came  in  the  dead  of  night  to  take  down 
and  bear  away  these  dismembered  bodies  to  their  own  city,  that 

1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  215. 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  129 

they  might  give  to  them  an  honorable  burial,  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  8- 
13.)  In  the  period  of  the  Greek  occupation  the  name  of  the  city 
was  changed  to  Scythopolis,  but  the  old  name  still  survives  in 
the  modern  Beisan. 

Scythopolis  was  the  largest  of  the  cities  of  Decapolis  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  and  the  only  one  of  that  district  west  of  the  Jordan. 
(Matt.  iv.  28;  Mark  v.  20.)  At  Jezreel  the  site  of  Bethshan 
can  be  plainly  seen.  Up  this  ascent,  "the  main  passage  be- 
tween Eastern  and  Western  Palestine,"  countless  hosts  have 
marched  in  orderly  ranks,  harnessed  for  the  battle;  or  in 
loosely  compacted  caravan  bands  with  camels  and  merchandise, 
on  their  way  to  Phoenicia  or  Egypt.  Not  once,  but  many  times, 
the  children  of  the  East  have  spread  along  in  this  valley  "  like 
grasshoppers  for  multitude."  Looking  down  it  the  watchman 
on  the  tower  of  Jezreel  could  see  the  clouds  of  dust,  which  the 
furious  driving  of  Jehu  had  stirred,  from  the  moment  that  his 
chariots  had  emerged  from  the  shadowy  depths  of  the  Jordan 
valley.  (2  Kings  ix.  16-21.) 

Mountains  of  Esdraelon. — Three  prominent  mountains 
lie  between  the  broken  divisions  of  the  main  range  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  plain,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
three  branches,  or  arms,  already  described.  This  cluster  of 
mountains,  familiarly  known  as  Gilboa,  Little  Hermon  and 
Tabor,  is  an  important  feature  in  the  topography,  as  well  as  in 
the  history  of  the  Great  Plain. 

I.  Gilboa. — The  general  direction  of  the  ridge  of  Gilboa 
is  a  little  south  of  east.  Its  length  is  about  ten  miles.  It  rises 
from  500  feet  above  the  sea  at  its  eastern  end,  to  an  elevation 
of  a  little  over  1,500  feet.  On  its  summit,  near  the  Eastern 
end,  is  the  village  of  Jelbon,  which  seems  to  be  identical  with 
the  appellation  of  the  mountain.  Jezreel  and  Bethshan,  already 
described,  stand  on  slight  elevations  or  spurs  at  either  end  of 
the  ridge.  An  old  and  well-travelled  road  from  Jenin  to  Beth- 
shan, crosses  the  range  at  Jelbon.  El  Mezar,  a  small  Moslem 
village,  rests  on  the  western  summit  of  the  mountain  about 


130  The  Land  of  Israel 

three  miles  east  of  Jezreel.  "This  mountain  seems  still  to  be 
a  stronghold  of  the  aboriginal  races.  The  fellahin  of  Mezar 
and  Jelbon  are  very  dark  and  square-built,  and  recall  our  ideal 
of  the  old  Canaanites.  Mohammedan  in  name  and  fanaticism, 
though  very  ignorant  of  thetenentsof  the  prophet,  they  attach 
far  greater  importance  to  the  worship  of  the  new  moon  on  the 
high  places  of  this  ridge,  than  to  the  ceremonial  of  the  mosque. 
They  seem,  in  fact,  to  be  an  isolated  survival  left  overlooked  by 
successive  waves  of  conquerors  on  these  barren,  uninviting 
heights."1 

The  fatal  battle  in  which  Saul  and  Jonathan  were  slain  raged 
along  the  northern  slope  of  Gilboa.  On  these  high  places  Saul 
and  his  three  sons  were  smitten ;  the  army  was  routed,  and 
"the  shield  of  the  mighty  vilely  cast  away."  (2  Sam.  i. 

19-25-) 

2.  Little  Hermon. — This  mountain,  now  called  Jebel 
Duhy  by  the  natives,  answers  to  the  description  of  the  hill 
Moreh.  (Judg.  vii.  i ;  i  Sam.  xxviii.  4.)  It  is  a  shorter 
ridge  than  Gilboa  and  rises  more  rapidly  to  its  highest  eleva- 
tion (1,690  feet).  "Jebel  Duhy  is  simply  the  bold  and  abrupt 
end  of  a  great  upheaved  basaltic  dyke  amidst  the  rolled  and 
denuded  limestone  hills  on  all  sides  of  it."2 

The  village  of  Nain,  with  name  unchanged,  stands  on 
the  northern  slope  of  the  mountain,  not  far  from  its  western 
end.  "The  ruined  heaps  and  traces  of  walls  prove  that  Nain 
was  of  considerable  extent  and  a  walled  town,  and  therefore 
with  gates,  according  to  the  gospel  narrative,  though  it  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  A  little  above  the  present 
village,  both  on  the  east  and  west  sides  are  many  tombs  hewn 
out  of  the  rocks.  About  ten  minutes'  walk  to  the  east  of  it  is 
the  principal  burying-place,  still  used,  and  probably  on  this 
very  path  our  Lord  met  the  sorrowing  procession."  *  (Luke 

1  Art.  by  Tristram  in  Pict.  Pal.  Vol.  I.,  p.  277. 

8  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  279. 

3  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  222. 


The  Plain  of  Esdruelon  131 

vii.  i  i-iS.)  Here  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Shunammite's 
home  a  greater  than  Elisha  awaked,  by  his  own  almighty 
power,  the  cold,  inanimate  form  of  the  widow's  only  son  from 
the  sleep  of  death  and  gave  him  back  to  his  mother. 

Endor  or  Endur  lies  on  the  same  side  of  Jebel  Duhy.  It  is 
about  two  miles  northeast  of  Nain.  In  the  vicinity  of  its  mud- 
built  houses  there  are  many  caves  which  are  still  utilized,  as 
they  have  been  in  the  past,  for  human  habitations. 

At  Endor  some  of  the  leading  chieftains  of  the  Canaanites 
were  slain  by  Barak.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10.)  Hither  came  King 
Saul  in  his  extremity  from  his  camp  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley  of  Jezreel,  some  eight  miles  distant,  to  seek  counsel  from 
the  woman  who  had  a  familiar  spirit,  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  7-20.) 

Mount  Tabor  is  the  most  conspicuous  landmark  in  Lower 
Galilee.  It  is  not  a  ridge  but  a  shapely  mountain  which  car- 
ries its  symmetrical  proportions  upward  from  its  base  to  its 
crown.  Its  general  contour  is  that  of  a  truncated  cone,  but 
from  the  plain  the  flattened  platform  on  its  summit  is  not  ap- 
parent. 

"  This  strange  and  beautiful  mountain,"  says  Dean  Stanley,  "  is  distin- 
guished alike  in  form  and  in  character  from  all  around  it.  As  seen  from 
the  northwest  of  the  plain  it  towers  like  a  dome — as  seen  from  the  east 
like  a  long  arched  mound — over  the  monotonous  undulations  of  the  sur- 
rounding hills,  from  which  it  stands  completely  isolated,  except  by  a 
narrow  neck  of  rising  ground,  uniting  it  to  the  mountain-range  of  Galilee. 
It  is  not  what  Europeans  would  call  a  wooded  hill,  because  its  trees  stand 
all  apart  from  each  other.  But  it  is  so  thickly  studded  with  them,  as  to 
rise  from  the  plain  like  a  mass  of  verdure.  Its  summit — a  broken  oblong 
— is  an  alternation  of  shade  and  greensward,  that  seerns  made  for  a 
national  festivity ;  broad  and  varied,  and  commanding  wide  views  of  the 
plain  from  end  to  end."  * 

The  range  of  vision  from  the  summit  of  Tabor  extends  from 
Hermon  to  Ebal  and  Gerizim ;  and  from  Gilead  to  the  Med- 
iterranean. In  the  triad  of  sacred  mountains — Hermon,  Tabor 

1  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  418. 


132  The  Land  of  Israel 

and  Carmel — so  often  referred  to  in  Scripture,  we  have  the 
representatives  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Palestine,  viz :  majesty,  grace  and  park-like  beauty. 
This  representative  character  is  seen  in  such  expressions  as 
these:  "As  Tabor  is  among  the  mountains,  and  as  Carmel 
by  the  sea,"  etc.  (Jer.  xlvi.  18.)  "The  north  and  the  south 
Thou  hast  created  them ;  Tabor  and  Hermon  shall  rejoice  in 
Thy  name."  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  12.) 

Mount  Tabor  was  the  rallying  point  for  the  hosts  of  Barak 
and  Deborah  (Judg.  iv.  5-15):  and  the  place  where  the 
brothers  of  Gideon  were  •  slain  by  Zebah  and  Zalmunna. 
(Judg.  viii.  1 8,  19.)  Tradition  has  located  the  Transfigura- 
tion scene  on  this  mountain,  but  this  does  not  accord  with  the 
story  of  the  Evangelists,  nor  with  the  fact  of  its  permanent  oc- 
cupation by  a  Roman  garrison  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  with  its  outgoings  toward  the  Jordan  and 
the  Mediterranean,  there  is  no  place,  perhaps,  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  of  similar  extent,  that  calls  up  such  a  long  train 
of  historic  associations,  and  stirring  events  of  far-reaching 
character,  as  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  From  the  very  begin- 
ning of  human  history  it  has  been  the  camping-place  and 
marching-ground  and  battlefield  of  the  nations.  "The  an- 
cient Canaanites,  with  chariots  of  iron,  have  traversed  it; 
Midianites  and  Amalekites,  with  their  vast  herds  have  deso- 
lated it;  and  the  Philistines,  the  Jews,  the  Egyptians,  the 
Syrians,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Crusaders,  the  Saracens, 
the  French — all  have  passed  over  it,  and  gone  on  to  victory  or 
defeat.  To  this  day  it  is  exposed  to  devastating  excursions 
from  the  Bedawin,  those  modern  <  children  of  the  East  *  who 
come  up  from  beyond  Jordan  'as  grasshoppers  for  multi- 
tude.' "  > 

Thus  in  a  sense  more  realistic  than  poetic,  Esdraelon  has 
been  the  valley  of  decision,  where  Dynasties  have  risen  and 
fallen ;  where  Kingdoms  have  been  lost  and  won. 
» The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  210. 


The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  133 

Hence  it  is  not  strange  that  this  "  valley  of  Megiddo,"  with 
its  long  record  of  conflicts,  from  Thotmes  III.  to  Napoleon, 
should  have  been  selected  as  the  typical  representative  of  the 
last  great  field  of  conflict  between  truth  and  error,  right  and 
wrong.  (Rev.  xvi.  16.) 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   MOUNTAINS   OF   EPHRAIM 

THIS  division,  sometimes  designated  collectively  as  Mount 
Ephraim,  extends  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  to  the  northern 
border  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  In  the  later  periods  of  Jewish 
history  Bethel  and  its  neighboring  towns  were  included  within 
its  limits,  but  the  term  as  generally  used  applies  to  the  mountain 
tract  allotted  to  the  sons  of  Joseph. 

Mount  Ephraim  differs  from  the  highlands  of  Galilee  in 
several  characteristic  features.  Its  ridges  are  more  rugged, 
rocky  and  irregular ;  its  plains  are  smaller  and  less  frequent, 
but  notable  for  their  rich  pasturage  and  abundant  crops  of 
grain ;  its  wadies  and  glens  are  more  deeply  cleft,  and  in  some 
localities  the  scenery  is  exceedingly  wild  and  picturesque. 
This  portion  of  the  inheritance  of  Joseph  has  been  happily 
described  by  Moses  as  "  a  land  blessed  of  the  Lord  for  the 
precious  things  of  heaven,  for  the  dew,  and  for  the  deep  that 
coucheth  beneath :  for  the  chief  things  of  the  mountains  and 
for  the  precious  things  of  the  everlasting  hills."  (Deut.  xxxiii. 

i3-J50 

The    mountains    of    this    series   which    claim   our   special 

attention  are  Carmcl,  Samaria,  the  twin  peaks  of  Ebal  and 
Gcrizim,  and  JJaal  Jlazor. 

Mount  Carmel. — 1'he  position  of  this  deflected  portion  of 
the  main  range  has  been  already  indicated.  It  is  a  ridge  about 
eighteen  miles  in  length  which  terminates  in  a  bold  headland 
on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  At  its  eastern  extremity,  the 
starting  point  of  the  deflection,  it  is  1,730  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  elongated  beak  at  its  western  extremity  is  550  feet  above 
the  water.  It  still  retains  its  old  name,  Jebul  Kurmul. 

134 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  135 

"The  excellency  of  Carmel "  (Isa.  xxxv.  2)  has  passed  into  a  proverb, 
but  the  mountain,  has  no  doubt,  lost  much  of  its  original  grace,  and  park- 
like  beauty  by  the  destruction  of  its  trees.  The  few  that  yet  remain* 
crown  the  highest  parts  01  stand  in  lonely  isolation  here  and  there  along 
its  sides.  It  is  still  true,  however,  that  the  "  characteristic  of  the  ex- 
cellency of  Carmel  is  the  wonderful  profusion  of  flowering  and  perfumed 
shrubs — bay,  storax,  linden,  arbutus,  and  innumerable  others,  wafting  their 
fragrance  in  volumes  through  the  air,  while  the  open  glades,  with  flowers 
of  every  hue,  orchis,  cyclamen,  tulip,  lily,  are  like  the  Garden  of  Eden  run 
wild.  But  all  this  '  Excellency '  only  lasts  for  a  month  in  spring.  More- 
over, nothing  can  be  more  marked  than  the  sudden  contrast  from  the 
brown,  bare  hills  of  Samaria  to  the  copse  and  woodland  which  greets  us 
as  soon  as  Carmel  is  touched."  1  "  No  wonder  that  to  an  Israelite  it 
seemed  the  park  of  his  country  ;  that  the  tresses  of  the  bride's  head  should 
be  compared  to  its  woods  (Cant.  vii.  5)  ;  that  its  ornaments  (excellency) 
should  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  national  beauty ;  that  the  withering  of 
its  fruits  should  be  considered  the  type  of  national  desolation."  (Amos 
i.  27;  Isa.  xxxiii.  9;  Nahum  i.  4.)  2  "Before  him,  who  stands  on 
Carmel,  nature  rises  in  a  series  of  great  stages  from  sea  to  Alp :  the 
Mediterranean,  the  long  coast  to  north  and  south,  with  its  hot  sands  and 
palms ;  Esdraelon  covered  with  wheat,  Tabor  and  the  lower  hills  of 
Galilee  with  their  oaks, — then  over  the  barer  peaks  of  Upper  Galilee,  and 
the  haze  that  is  about  them,  the  clear  snow  of  Hermon,  hanging  like  an 
only  cloud  in  the  sky."  3 

Carmel  was  a  favorite  resort  of  Elijah  and  of  his  successor 
Elisha.  Here  the  name  and  absolute  authority  of  Jehovah 
were  vindicated  by  Elijah,  in  the  presence  of  850  priests  of 
Baal  and  the  assembled  thousands  of  Israel,  (i  Kings  xviii. 
19-40.) 

The  scene  of  this  memorable  conflict  was  at  the  eastern  or 
landward  end  of  the  ridge,  some  twelve  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  probable  place  of  the  sacrifice,  which  seems  to  fulfill  all 
the  conditions  of  the  narrative,  still  bears  the  name  El 
Mahrakah,  the  "burning"  or  "the  sacrifice."  It  is  a  rock 
platform  or  terrace,  300  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  and  1,400  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  Kishon.  There 

1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  198.  *  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  420. 

3  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  340. 


136  The  Land  of  Israel 

is  a  deep  spring  with  a  stone-built  square  reservoir,  in  the 
upper  part  of  this  platform,  in  which  have  been  found  shell-fish 
'such  as  exist  only  in  permanent  fresh-water  streams  or  pools. 
Dr.  Tristram  thinks  this  fact  is  sufficient  of  itself  to  establish 
the  presumption  that  this  deep  and  shaded  spring,  fed  from  the 
rocks  of  Carmel,  remained  throughout  the  three  years.'  drought, 
when  all  the  wells  were  dry  and  the  Kishon  itself  had  shrunken 
to  a  string  of  pools,  or  had  been  dried  up  at  its  fountain  heads. 
He  describes  the  site  as  "a  glade  overlooking  the  plain  some- 
what in  the  shape  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  completely  shut  in 
on  the  north  by  the  well-wooded  cliffs.  No  place  can  be  con- 
ceived more  adapted  by  nature  to  be  that  wondrous  battlefield 
of  truth,  where  Elijah  appealed  to  Israel,  How  long  halt  ye  be- 
tween two  opinions  ?  In  front  of  the  principal  actors  in  the 
scene,  with  the  king  and  his  courtiers  by  their  side,  the  thou- 
sands of  Israel  might  have  been  gathered  on  the  lower  slopes, 
witnesses  of  the  whole  struggle  to  its  stupendous  results. ' ' l 

Another  site,  about  a  mile  north  of  this  platform  has  been 
suggested  by  Mr.  L.  Oliphant.  It  is  near  some  tanks  capable 
of  supplying  water  in  any  quantity,  even  at  that  time  of  drought. 
This  spot  is  not  far  from  the  summit  of  the  hill  and  within 
100  yards  of  the  path  which  leads  down  to  Tell  el  Kasis,  the 
traditional  site  of  the  slaughter  of  the  priests  of  Baal.  Within 
a  radius  of  two  and  a-half  miles  of  this  spot  Mr.  Oliphant 
counted  the  ruins  of  twelve  ancient  towns  and  villages. 

The  after  scene  in  the  events  of  that  memorable  day,  when 
the  prophet  directed  the  king  to  prepare  his  chariot  and  get 
down  in  haste  lest  the  rain  should  stop  him,  is  in  keeping  with 
all  the  facts  of  observation  and  experience  with  respect  to  the 
heavy  rains,  which  ofttimes  follow  the  appearance  of  the  "  little 
clouds  which  arise  out  of  the  sea  "  ;  as  well  those  which  relate 
to  the  behavior  of  the  Kishon  at  this  point,  when  there  is  a 
sudden  cloud-burst  over  the  plain.  To  cross  this  river  and 
avoid  the  danger  of  swamping  in  the  alluvial  bed  of  Esdraelon, 
2  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  \\  200,  and  also  J  L  :v.l.  Geog.,  p.  134. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  137 

before  he  should  reach  Jezreel,  eighteen  miles  distant,  required 
quick  work  in  the  face  of  the  on-coming  tempest.  In  order  that 
he  might  hasten  the  king's  flight  the  stern  prophet  of  Israel  be- 
comes, for  the  moment,  a  messenger  of  deliverance.  "And  the 
hand  of  the  Lord  was  on  Elijah ;  and  he  girded  up  his  loins, 
and  ran  before  Ahab  to  the  entrance  of  Jezreel."  (i  Kings 
xviii.  46.) 

Samaria. — The  Mount,  or  Hill  of  Samaria,  stands  in  the 
midst  of  a  wide  green  basin  (Wady  esh  Shair),  which  is  shut 
in  on  three  sides  by  picturesque,  fruitful  hills  of  a  higher 
elevation.  It  is  twenty-three  miles  from  the  sea,  six  miles 
northwest  of  Shechem,  and  about  fifteen  southwest  of  Jenin. 
It  is  an  oblong,  shapely  hill,  wholly  isolated  from  the  mountains 
around  it,  except  on  the  east,  where  a  low,  undulating  ridge 
touches  its  base  and  forms  a  slight  connection  with  the  main 
range.  Its  elevation  above  the  encircling  plain  is  over  500  feet, 
and  it  is  belted  to  the  top  with  broad,  green  terraces.  The 
outlook  from  the  summit  includes  in  its  reach,  through  an 
opening  in  the  hills  to  the  west,  a  glimpse  of  the  blue  water  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  natural  advantages  of  this  watch 
tower  among  the  mountains  were  recognized  by  Omri,  the 
father  of  Ahab,  who  bought  it  of  Shemer  its  owner  for  two 
talents  of  silver.  To  the  royal  city  which  he  afterward  built 
upon  it  he  gave  the  name  Shomeron  (Samaria)  "  after  the  name 
of  Shemer,  the  owner  of  the  hill."  (i  Kings  xvi.  24.)  For 
nearly  200  years  this  «  city  on  the  green  hill '  was  the  capital  of 
the  ten  tribes  of  Israel.  It  was  central  in  location,. beautiful  for 
situation  and  rich  in  agricultural  surroundings ;  but  it  lacked 
the  strength  of  righteousness  and  the  favor  of  the  God  of 
Israel,  who  had  chosen  Mount  Zion  for  His  dwelling-place. 
Under  the  lead  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel  it  became  a  famous  centre 
of  idolatrous  worship  in  its  most  degrading  forms  :  and,  as  the 
prophet  had  foretold,  on  the  eve  of  its  destruction,  "  its  glorious 
beauty,"  which  was  on  the  "head  of  the  fat  valley,"  be- 
came "a  fading  flower  and  as  the  hasty  fruit  before  the  sum- 


138 


The  Land  of  Israel 


mer."  (Isa.  xxviii.  1-4.)  The  chief  elements  of  the  history  of 
this  northern  capital  of  Israel  are  rebellions,  murders,  famines 
and  sieges,  (i  Kings  xx.  12-29,  xxn-  37>  3& ;  2  Kings  vi., 
vii.  and  xvii.  5,  6.) 

Samaria  was  destroyed,  after  a  clcce  investment  oi~  three 
years,  by  the  Assyrians  (B.  c.  721).  Its  inhabitants,  with 
their  brethren  of  the  ten  tribes,  were  carried  away  beyond  the 
Euphrates.  With  its  fall  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  had 
maintained  its  separate  existence  for  a  period  of  255  years,  came 
to  an  end. 

The  foreign  element  introduced  into  the  land  by  the  kings  of 
Assyria  built  a  new  city  upon  the  ruined  site  of  Samaria,  which 
survived  all  the  changes  and  reverses  of  subsequent  centuries 
until  it  came  under  the  control  of  Herod  the  Great.  In  his 
reign  and  under  his  personal  direction  it  was  rebuilt  and 
adorned  with  princely  munificence.  Palatial  buildings  crowned 
its  heights  and  extended  down  its  graded  slopes  on  every  side. 
In  honor  of  the  Emperor  Augustus'  Herod  changed  the  name  of 
the  reconstructed  city  to  Sebaste,  but  the  old  name  was  retained 
by  the  people  of  the  land :  and,  after  the  lapse  of  many 
centuries,  its  ruins  are  still  designated  by  the  name,  Samaria. 
In  the  height  of  its  prosperity  Philip  preached  the  gospel 
with  wonderful  success  in  Samaria:  "and  there  was  great 
joy  in  that  city."  (Acts  viii.  5-8.)  The  largest  of  the 
ruined  structures  yet  remaining  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  is 
the  Church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  built  by  the  Crusaders  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Higher  up  are  the  remains  of  clustered 
columns  and  of  a  magnificent  double  colonnade,  fifty  feet  in 
width,  which  swept  around  one  of  the  upper  terraces  of  the  hill 
— a  gleaming  coronet  of  marble — for  a  distance  of  3,000  feet. 
"  In  the  western  part,"  says  Dr.  Robinson,  "  about  sixty  of  these 
columns  are  still  erect,  and  farther  east  are  some  twenty  more 
standing  irregularly,  at  various  intervals.  Many  more  than 
these  lie  prostrate ;  and  we  could  trace  whole  columns  in  frag- 
ments nearly  or  quite  to  the  village."  Near  the  church  of  St 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  139 

John  is  an  ancient  reservoir  which  suggests  the  "  Pool  of  Sa- 
maria ' '  where  one  washed  the  blood-stained  chariot  of  Ahab, 
in  which,  at  last,  the  King  had  met  his  doom,  (i  Kings 
xxii.  38.) 

After  all  the  centuries  which  have  intervened,  no  language 
so  strikingly  depicts  the  present  condition  of  the  cities  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel ;  Herod  and  Herodias — as  the  words  of  the  prophet 
Micah,  "I  will  make  Samaria  as  an  heap  of  the  field  and  as 
plantings  of  a  vineyard :  and  I  will  pour  down  the  stones 
thereof  into  the  valley,  and  I  will  discover  the  foundations 
thereof"  (i.  16).  Not  more  literally,  says  Canon  Tristram, 
have  the  denunciations  on  Tyre  or  Babylon  been  accomplished. 

Ebal  and  Gerizim. — The  rounded  summits  of  these  cele- 
brated mountains  rise  side  by  side  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
plain  of  Mukhna,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim. 
As  seen  from  the  south  or  east,  they  appear  to  be  conical  peaks, 
but  in  reality  they  are  parallel  ridges  running  nearly  east  and 
west,  which  terminate  abruptly  in  rounded  masses  on  the  edge 
of  the  plain. 

The  distance  between  their  bases  at  this  point  does  not  ex- 
ceed 500  yards.  Mount  Ebal  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  vale 
of  Shechem.  Its  summit  (3,076)  is  higher  than  Mount 
Gerizim  (2,848).  "  The  contrast  between  Ebal  and  Gerizim  is 
less  real  than  is  often  supposed.  The  dip  of  the  strata  sinks  to 
the  north  across  the  valley,  and  this  causes  a  want  of  springs  on 
the  south  side  of  Ebal,  but  its  north  side  is  almost  as  rich  in 
them  as  the  north  slope  of  Gerizim."  "  The  sides  of  Ebal  are 
clad  with  smooth  prickly-pear.  Gerizim,  facing  north  seems 
more  bare  and  scarped :  caves  and  springs  diversify  its  face. 
Up  the  little  wadies,  or  nullahs,  which  furrow  its  sides,  rich 
fruit-orchards  of  orange,  almond,  pomegranate,  peach,  and 
fig  trees  climb,  till  the  rocks  are  too  bare  to  support  them ;  and 
on  the  east  corner,  is  the  little  Moslem  chapel,  which  crowns 
the  ruins  of  the  Samaritan  temple." 

The  survivers  of  the  Samaritan  sect,  which  at  latest  accounts 


140  The  Land  of  Israel 

numbered  about  160  persons,  have  a  synagogue  in  Shechem, 
but  to  this  day  they  observe  the  Passover  as  an  annual  festival 
on  the  summit  of  Gerizim.  "  This  mountain, "  to  which  the 
woman  of  Samaria  nearly  2,000  years  ago  pointed  as  the 
venerated  shrine  where  her  people  worshipped,  is  the  only  place 
on  the  face  of  the  earth  where  this  sacred  festival  has  been  cele- 
brated continuously,  in  strict  accordance  with  the  law  of  Moses, 
since  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The  sacred  roll  of  the  Pentateuch, 
which  is  their  warrant  for  this  service  and  which  they  guard 
with  jealous  care,  is  perhaps  the  oldest  copy  of  this 
portion  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  world. 

On  Gerizim  the  fearless  Jotham,  youngest  son  of  Gideon, 
uttered  in  the  hearing  of  the  people  in  the  valley  below,  the 
fable  of  the  talking  trees.  This  quaint  homily  embodied  a 
fitting  rebuke  to  the  men  of  Shechem  for  their  folly  and  sin  in 
choosing  the  murderer  of  his  brethren  to  be  their  king,  as  well 
as  a  presage  of  the  calamity  which  was  certain  to  overtake  them 
in  the  end.  (Judg.  ix.  6-21.) 

Along  the  slopes  of  these  mountains,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
valley  of  Shechem,  all  the  tribes  of  Israel  were  ranged  on  that 
memorable  day,  when  the  book  of  the  Law  of  God,  which 
Moses  had  written,  was  rehearsed  and  ratified.  (Josh.  viii. 
30-35.)  Next  to  the  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinai  this  was  the 
most  sublime  spectacle  and  impressive  service  in  the  history  of 
Israel.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  two  breaks,  or  lateral  val- 
leys, directly  opposite  each  other,  have  formed  natural  amphi- 
theatres on  either  slope  which  seem  to  have  been  prepared  for 
such  an  occasion.  The  narrative  distinctly  affirms  that  the 
people  "  stood  on  this  side  and  that  of  the  ark  ;  half  of  them  in 
front  of  Mount  Gerizim,  and  half  of  them  over  against  Mount 
Ebal;  as  Moses  the  servant  of  the  Lord  had  commanded." 
(Josh.  viii.  33;  Deut.  xxvii.  12,  13.)  There  is  no  intimation 
that  either  the  readers  or  those  who  responded  were  on  the  top 
of  the  mountains.  The  objection  sometimes  urged  on  this  sup- 
position has  no  support  in  the  story  of  this  impressive  service ; 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim 

nor  in  the  topography  of  the  site  where  it  took  place.  Says 
Sir  Charles  Wilson,  "  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  of  this  natural 
amphitheatre  that  there  is  no  other  place  in  Palestine,  so  suit- 
able for  the  assembly  of  a  large  body  of  men,  within  the  limits 
to  which  the  human  voice  could  reach,  and  where  at  the  same 
time  each  individual  would  be  able  to  see  what  was  going  on. 
The  recesses  in  the  two  mountains  that  form  the  amphitheatre 
are  exactly  opposite  to  each  other,  and  the  limestone  strata 
running  up  to  the  very  summits  in  a  succession  of  ledges  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  regular  benches.  A  grander  sight  can 
scarcely  be  imagined  than  that  which  the  reading  of  the  Law  must 
have  presented :  the  ark  borne  by  the  Levites,  on  the  gentle 
elevation  that  separates  the  waters  that  flow  westward,  from 
those  flowing  toward  the  Jordan,  and  all  Israel  and  their  elders, 
and  officers,  and  their  judges  on  this  side  and  on  that,  half  of 
them  over  against  Mount  Gerizim  and  half  of  them  over  against 
Mount  Ebal,  covering  the  bare  hillsides  from  head  to  foot." 

In  the  clear,  resonant  air  of  Palestine  the  human  voice  can 
be  distinctly  heard,  as  many  experiments  have  demonstrated, 
across  these  natural  terraces  from  side  to  side. 

The  view  from  Mount  Ebal  includes  a  magnificent  sweep 
of  country  extending  from  the  borders  of  the  Negeb  to  the 
snow-crown  of  Hermon,  seventy-five  miles  northward,  and 
from  the  plateau  of  the  trans- Jordanic  range  to  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  westward. 

Dr.  G.  A.  Smith  has  admirably  summed  up  the  salient  fea- 
tures of  this  far-reaching  panoramic  view,  in  the  following  de- 
scription : 

All  the  four  zones,  two  of  the  four  frontiers,  specimens  of  all  the  phys- 
ical features  and  most  of  the  famous  scenes  'of  the  history,  are  in  sight 
No  geography  of  Palestine  can  afford  to  dispense  with  the  view  from  the 
top  of  Ebal.  In  detail  it  is  this  : 

Looking  south,  you  have  at  your  feet  the  pass  through  the  range,  with 
Nablus  (Shechem)  ;  then  over  it  the  mass  of  Gerizim,  with  a  ruin  or  two  ; 
and  then  twenty-four  miles  of  hilltop  at  the  back  of  wbiph  vou  dimly  dis- 


142  The  Land  of  Israel 

cern  a  tower.  That  is  Neby  Samwil,  the  ancient  Mizpeh.  Jerusalem  is  only 
five  miles  beyond,  and  to  the  west  the  tower  overlooks  the  Shephelah. 
Turning  westward,  you  see — nay,  you  almost  feel — the  letting  down,  by 
irregular  terraces,  on  to  the  plain ;  the  plain  itself  flattened  by  the  height 
from  which  you  look,  but  really  undulating  to  mounds  of  100  and  200 
feet ;  beyond  the  plain  the  gleaming  sand-hills  of  the  coast  and  the  infinite 
blue  sea.  Joppa  lies  southwest  thirty-three  miles;  Caesarea  northwest 
twenty-nine.  Turning  northward,  we  have  the  long  ridge  of  Carmel 
running  down  from  its  summit,  perhaps  thirty-five  miles  distant,  to  the 
low  hills  that  separate  it  from  our  range  ;  over  the  rest  of  this  the  hollow 
that  represents  Esdraelon ;  over  that  the  hills  of  Galilee  in  a  haze,  and 
above  the  haze  the  glistening  shoulders  of  Hermon.  Sweeping  south 
from  Hermon,  the  eastern  horizon  is  the  edge  of  Hauran  above  the  Lake 
of  Galilee,  continued  by  the  edge  of  Mount  Gilead  exactly  east  of  us,  and 
by  the  edge  of  Moab,  away  to  the  southeast.  This  line  of  the  Eastern 
range  is  maintained  at  a  pretty  equal  level,  nearly  that  on  which  we 
stand,  and  seems  unbroken  save  by  the  incoming  valleys  of  the  Yarmuk 
and  the  Jabbok.  It  is  only  twenty-five  miles  away,  and  on  the  near  side 
of  it  lies  the  Jordan  valley — a  great  wide  gulf,  of  which  the  bottom  is  out 
of  sight.  On  this  side  Jordan  the  foreground  is  the  hilly  bulwark  of 
Mount  Ephraim,  penetrated  by  a  valley  coming  up  from  Jordan  into  the 
plain  of  Mukhna  to  meet  the  pass  that  splits  the  range  at  our  feet.1 

Baal  Hazor,  now  called  Tell  Astir,  is  the  highest  peak  of 
Mount  Ephraim.  Its  elevation  is  3,318  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
is  nearly  five  miles  north  of  Bethel ;  its  southern  base  being  the 
old  border  line  between  'Ephraim  and  Benjamin.  It  is  a  mass 
of  bare  rock  prominent  in  Biblical  history  mainly  as  a  noted 
high  place,  or  landmark.  All  its  associations  seem  to  have  been 
with  Baal  and  his  worship.  Dr.  Henderson  mentions  the  fact 
that  in  the  "registers"  (Neh.  xi.  33)  Hazar  was  counted  to 
Benjamin,  but  in  other  descriptions  it  is  clearly  included  within 
the  portion  of  Ephraim.  The  sheep  farm  of  Absalom  was 
somewhere  on  the  slope  of  Baal  Hazor.  To  this  place  Amnon, 
his  brother,  was  treacherously  decoyed  and  put  to  death.  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  23-29.) 

Interspersed  Plains. — These  have  been  described  as  "a 
i  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  120. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  143 

succession  of  level  spaces,  more  or  less  connected,  which 
spreads  southward  through  the  centre  of  the  province  to  within 
a  few  miles  of  its  southern  border. 

"  First  from  Jenin  is  the  Plain  of  Dothan,  reached  by  an  easy 
pass  through  the  low  hills ;  thence  another  easy  pass  leads  to  a 
series  of  spacious  meadows  lying  across  the  country  from  the 
south  end  of  Gilboa  to  the  range  of  hills  which  bulwark  the 
city  of  Samaria  on  the  north ;  and  thence  another  easy  pass 
leads  to  a  third  series  of  plains  running  south  past  the  vale  of 
Shechem  into  the  great  Sahel  Mukhna  opposite  Gerizim."  1 

The  plains  of  Dothan  and  Mukhna  are  especially  noteworthy 
because  of  their  associations  with  important  events  in  Biblical 
history. 

Dothan. — The  great  caravan  route,  which  diverges  from 
Esdraelon  at  Jenin  and  follows  the  course  of  the  Wady  Selhab 
to  the  coast  plain,  passes  through  the  plain  of  Dothan. 

It  lies  directly  south  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  Esdraelon 
plain  and  is  separated  from  it  by  a  low,  narrow  ridge  jutting 
out  from  the  eastern  base  of  Carmel. 

As  seen  from  the  hills  above  it  Dothan  is  a  lovely  crescent- 
shaped  basin,  almost  encircled  by  hills,  which  converge  around 
it  from  the  north  and  south.  It  is  still  famous  as  a  rich  pasture 
ground  to  which  the  shepherds  and  herdsmen  resort  when  the 
pastures  of  the  hills  and  more  elevated  plains  become  dry  and 
parched  with  the  drought  of  summer. 

Here  Joseph  found  his  brethren  and  was  sold  by  them  into 
slavery.  The  passing  of  a  company  of  Midianite  merchantmen 
afforded  the  opportunity  of  disposing  of  him  finally,  as  they 
supposed,  without  imbruing  their  hands  in  his  blood.  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  17-28.) 

A  large  mound  of  ruins  (Tell  Dothan)  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  plain  still  bears  the  name  unchanged  by  which  it  was 
known  in  the  days  of  the  Patriarchs. 

» Smith's  Hist.  G«og.,  p.  327. 


144: 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"  Here  a  spring  yet  bursts  at  the  foot  of  a  smooth  hill.  Round  this 
spring  Joseph's  brethren  probably  sat  as  he  drew  near.  They  cast  him 
into  a  cistern  that  was  empty,  for  the  season  must  have  been  advanced, 
and  possibly  had  been  one  of  drought  when  they  took  their  flocks  from 
Shechem  to  Dothan.  The  town  remained  till  the  time  of  the  kings,  when 
it  was  the  scene  of  Elisha's  deliverance."1  (2  Kings  vi.  13-17.) 

Remains  of  the  old  paved  road  and  dry  cisterns  or  pits  have 
been  found  near  Tell  Dothan. 

Mukhna. — This  upland  plain  lies  between  the  eastern  de- 
clivities of  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  and  a  broken  range  from  two  to 
four  miles  distant  on  the  edge  of  the  plateau. 

Its  length  is  about  nine  miles.  The  general  direction  is 
nearly  north  and  south.  The  vale  of  Shechem  enters  the  plain 
on  its  western  side  about  one-third  of  its  length  from  the  north- 
ern end.  At  either  extremity  it  is  contracted  by  mountain 
spurs  or  ridges  which  close  gradually  around  it,  but  in  the  mid- 
dle portion  it  expands  to  a  breadth  of  three  or  four  miles.  On 
the  eastern  side,  directly  opposite  the  valley  of  Shechem,  an 
offshoot  one-half  a  mile  or  more  in  width,  runs  up  among  the 
hills  for  two  or  three  miles. 

The  broader  expanse  of  the  plain  is  noted  for  its  fertility  and 
is  carefully  cultivated.  In  the  early  months  of  summer  it  is  an 
almost  continuous  grain  field,  from  end  to  end.  The  portion 
of  ground  which  Jacob  bought  of  the  children  of  Hamor  was 
at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  Shechem.  It  is  doubly  conse- 
crated to  the  memory  of  the  Patriarch  by  the  well  which  he 
dug  and  transmitted  to  his  posterity,  and  by  the  tomb  of  his 
noble  son  Joseph,  who  was  buried  here  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembled  thousands  of  Israel.  After  the  conquest  this  "parcel 
of  Ground  "  became  the  inheritance  of  the  children  of  Joseph. 
(Josh.  xxiv.  32.) 

Wadies. — These  are  numerous  and  may  be  readily  traced 
on  the  Relief  Map. 

The  most  prominent  on  the  eastern  side  are :    Wady  Farah, 

» Henderson's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  66. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephfaim  145 

a  notable  cleft,  leading  down  from  the  base  of  Mount  Ebal  to 
the  Damieh  ford  and  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok ;  and  Wady  El 
Auj'eh,  which  begins  its  course  near  Baal  Hazor  and  enters  the 
Jordan  valley  directly  east  of  Bethel.  On  the  western  side  the 
torrent  beds  are  shallower  with  many  tributaries :  and  hence 
are  not  so  distinctly  marked.  Among  those  worthy  of  special 
mention  are :  Wady  Arah,  which  affords  a  passage-way  to  the 
coast  from  Megiddo ;  Wady  Selhab,  which  traverses  the  length 
of  the  plain  of  Dothan  and  issues  in  Wady  Abu  Nar  on  the 
coast  plain;  Wady  Shair  (the  Barley  Vale),  running  north- 
west from  Shechem,  via  Samaria,  to  the  coast;  Wady 
Kanaht  and  its  tributaries,  beginning  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  plain  of  Mukhna  and  ending  in  the  Aujeh  river :  and 
Wady  Deir  Balut,  with  its  tributaries  Wady  Ishar  and  Wady 
Nimr. 

The  natural,  or  geographical,  limit  of  Mount  Ephraim  on 
the  south  is  marked  by  the  course  of  "the  Wady  Deir  Balut, 
the  Wady  Nimr,  a  line  across  the  water  parting  to  the  Wady 
Samieh,  and  so  down  this  and  the  Wady  Aujeh  to  the  Jordan, 
eight  miles  above  Jericho."  1  The  head  waters  of  both  of  the 
lateral  valleys  traced  in  this  description,  are  at  the  northern 
base  of  Baal  Hazor. 

TOWNS  AND  SACRED  SITES  OF  MOUNT  EPHRAIM 

i.  Shechem.  Nablus,  the  modern  representative  of 
this  ancient  city,  is  in  the  very  heart  of  the  rich  heritage  of 
Joseph.  Its  position  is  midway  between  Dan  and  Beersheba 
and  almost  midway  between  the  sea  and  the  Jordan.  It  is 
thirty  miles  from  Jerusalem  ;  thirty  miles  from  Caesarea ;  eight- 
een from  Jenin  ;  thirty-three  from  Bethshan  ;  and  about  sixteen 
from  the  nearest  ford  of  the  Jordan.  The  city  overspreads  the 
narrow  watershed,  which  lies  between  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  parting 
the  rivulets  which  flow  from  their  bases  on  either  hand,  to  east 

*  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  249. 


146 


The  Land  of  Israel 


and  west.  "The  streams  which  burst  forth  copiously  from 
springs  within  its  walls,  run  from  the  east  gate  down  to  the 
Jordan  ;  and  those  which  dash  over  the  pavements,  at  the  west 
end  of  the  town  find  their  way  through  the  plain  of  Sharon  to 
the  Mediterranean.  A  site  so  fair  and  lovely,  invited  by  its 
many  waters  the  earliest  settlement  of  mankind.  As  old  as 
Damascus  and  Hebron,  Shechem  was  a  city  when  Abram  yet 
lived  in  Chaldea."1 

There  is  certainly  no  spot  in  Central  Palestine  which  rivals 
this  narrow  valley  in  rich  verdure,  luxuriant  vegetation,  and 
luscious  fruitage.  It  calls  forth  the  admiration  of  travellers 
from  every  clime,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  typical  representa- 
tive of  the  natural  beauty  and  extraordinary  productiveness  of 
"  the  good  land  "  when  in  its  best  estate.  To  the  outskirts  of 
this  place  Abram  came,  about  forty  centuries  ago  with  his 
flocks  and  herds.  It  is  probable  that  he  crossed  the  Jordan  at 
the  Damieh  ford  near  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  and  followed 
the  course  of  the  Wady  Farah  to  his  camping  ground,  by  the 
oak  of  Moreh,  in  front  of  the  city.  Here  he  erected  his  altar 
and  called  on  the  name  of  the  Lord.  (Gen.  xii.  6.)  Shechem 
has  the  singular  honor,  therefore,  of  being  the  oldest  of  all  the 
sacred  places  in  the  land.  It  is  the  historical  as  well  as  the 
geographical  centre  of  Palestine. 

With  a  view  to  a  longer  sojourn  than  that  of  Abram,  and 
doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  dwelling  apart  from  the  people  of 
the  land,  Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Padan  Aram,  purchased 
the  portion  of  ground  which  was  before  the  city  and  there  he 
pitched  his  tents  and  erected  his  altar.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20.) 
It  was  under  the  oak  which  was  by  Shechem, — the  same  no 
doubt  that  had  sheltered  Abraham — that,  before  he  renewed 
his  covenant  at  Bethel,  Jacob  hid  the  strange  gods,  which 
some  of  the  members  of  his  household  had  brought  with 
them  from  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates.  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
12-17.) 

»  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  175. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  147 

After  the  conquest  Shechem  was  designated  as  the  central 
city  of  refuge  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan  and  was  given  to 
the  Levites.  (Josh.  xx.  7,  xxi.  21.) 

It  was  the  general  meeting  place  for  the  tribes  during  the  life- 
time of  Joshua.  Here  the  Law  was  ratified  and  here  the  Cov- 
enant with  Jehovah  was  renewed  on  that  memorable  day  when 
Joshua  addressed  them  for  the  last  time.  (Josh.  viii.  33, 
xxiv.  1-25.) 

In  Shechem  Abimelech,  the  usurper,  established  his  short- 
lived kingdom.  At  a  later  period  another  usurper,  Jeroboam 
the  son  of  Nebat,  was  crowned  in  this  place  by  the  representa- 
tives of  the  ten  tribes,  (i  Kings  xii.  16-20.)  It  was  the  first 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel :  and  long  afterward  when  the 
ten  tribes  had  been  carried  away  into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians, 
Shechem  became  the  chief  seat  and  the  sacred  city  of  the 
Samaritans. 

The  modern  city  (Nablus)  is  solidly  built,  but  its  streets  are 
narrow,  roughly  paved  and  crooked.  In  some  quarters  they 
are  arched  over  as  a  protection  from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
walls  and  houses  are  built  of  fine  white  limestone.  The  town 
is  literally  embowered  in  green,  and  to  the  traveller  approach- 
ing it  from  either  end  of  the  valley  it  presents  a  very  attractive 
appearance.  The  present  population  is  estimated  at  20,000. 
"When  railways  and  other  modern  improvements  and  institu- 
tions shall  have  been  introduced  into  Palestine,  this  city,  from 
its  natural  position,  abundance  of  water,  great  fertility  of  the 
surrounding  country,  and  temperate  climate,  will  become  not 
only  a  favorite  resort,  but  the  centre  of  a  large  and  productive 
district."  l 

Jacob's  Well. — It  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  no  spot 
of  ground  within  the  limits  of  the  Holy  Land  has  been  more 
certainly  identified  than  the  site  of  this  wayside  well  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  valley  of  Shechem.  The  ruined  chapel  or  crypt 
which  has  protected  its  mouth  from  the  drifts  of  earth  and  dis- 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  145. 


148 


The  Land  of  Israel 


integrated  rock  that  have  been  piling  up  around  it  for  ages,  is 
the  successor  of  an  older  structure  dating  as  far  back  as  the 
fourth  century.  Its  connection  with  the  well  of  Jacob  has  been 
established  by  the  testimony  of  the  Apostle  John ;  by  the  re- 
markable consensus  of  traditions  concerning  it  among  the 
Jews,  Samaritans,  Moslems  and  Christians  ;  by  the  testimony 
of  Eusebius  and  other  witnesses,  from  the  early  part  of  the 
fourth  century  and  onward ;  and  by  the  name  still  given  it  by 
the  Samaritans  (Beer  Jacub),  who  have  never  lost  sight  of  it, 
and  in  a  sense  have  been  its  guardians,  since  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  For  many  years  the  visible  opening  to 
Jacob's  well  was  in  the  floor  of  the  subterranean  chapel,  to 
which  reference  has  been  made ;  and  could  only  be  reached  by 
a  descent  of  eight  or  ten  feet  through  a  hole  in  its  vaulted  roof. 
Since  the  discovery  of  the  real  mouth  of  the  well  under  the 
floor  of  the  chapel  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Barclay  in  1881,  the  rubbish 
has  been  cleared  away,  and  access  to  it  has  been  made  easy 
from  the  level  of  the  ground  outside.  The  following  account 
of  this  important  discovery  was  given  by  Dr.  Barclay  in  a  letter 
to  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  : 

Jacob's  well  has  again  and  again  been  described  by  writers  on  Pales- 
tine, and  all  have  mentioned  their  disappointment  that  instead  of  finding 
any  semblance  to  a  well,  or  anything  which  would  recall  the  interview  of 
our  Lord  with  the  woman  of  Samaria,  they  have  merely  found  a  dark, 
irregular  hole  amid  a  mass  of  ruins  in  a  vaulted  chamber  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  I  have  shared  this  disappointment  on  many  pre- 
vious visits  to  Nablus,  and  again,  as  a  fortnight  ago  I  stood  with  my  wife 
beside  the  spot,  it  was  with  great  regret  that  we  were  utterly  unable  to 
picture  before  us  the  scene  so  graphically  described  by  the  Evangelist. 
We  had  clamlx-ml  do\vn  into  the  vault,  and  were  vainly  attempting  to 
peer  into  the  dark  hole  amid  the  heaps  of  stones  and  rubbish,  when  we 
chanced  to  notice,  a  few  feet  from  the  opening,  a  dark  crack  between  the 
stones.  Fancying  that  possibly  it  might  be  another  opening  of  the  well, 
we  removed  some  stones  and  earth,  and  soon  were  able  to  trace  part  of  a 
curved  aperture  in  a  large  slab  of  stone.  Deeply  interested  at  finding 
this,  we  cleared  away  more  earth  and  stones,  and  soon  distinguished  the 
circular  mouth  of  the  well,  though  it  was  blocked  by  an  immense  mass 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  149 

of  stone.  Calling  to  aid  two  men  who  were  looking  on,  with  considerable 
labor  we  at  length  managed  to  remove  it,  and  the  opening  of  the  well 
was  clear.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  our  feelings  as  we  gazed  down 
the  open  well,  and  sat  on  that  ledge  on  which  doubtless  the  Saviour  rested, 
and  felt  with  our  fingers  the  grooves  in  the  stone  caused  by  the  ropes  by 
which  the  water-pots  were  drawn  up.  The  following  day  we  devoted  to 
completely  excavating  round  the  opening  of  the  well,  and  laying  bare  the 
massive  stones  which  form  its  mouth.  This  consists  of  the  hard  white 
limestone  of  the  country,  and  is  in  fair  preservation,  though  parts  are 
broken  away  here  and  there.  The  annexed  rude  sketch  gives  some  idea 
of  its  appearance. 


The  exact  measurements  I  also  give : 


Length  

ft. 

•3 

in. 

Breadth  ....            .            . 

2 

Thickness  

...         I 

6 

Height  above  pavement             . 

I 

i 

Breadth  of  aperture  of  well     .    .    . 

...         I 

c 

Depth  of  well  

67 

o 

Width  . 

7 

6 

We  let  a  boy  down  to  the  bottom,  but  found  nothing  of  any  interest, 
but  evidently  there  is  a  large  accumulation  of  rubbish.  I  trust  that  a 
stone  of  such  intense  interest  may  long  remain  uninjured  now  that  it  has 
been  exposed  to  light.  l 

»  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  198. 


150 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  accompanying  sketch  of  a  section  of  the  well,  for  which 
the  author  is  also  indebted  to  the  Exploration  Fund, 
shows  at  a  glance  the  ruined  vault,  as  it  formerly  ap- 
peared; the  contracted  mouth;  and  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  masonry  and  limestone-rock. 

"  The  mouth  and  upper  portion  of  the  well,"  says  Major  Anderson,  "  is 
built  of  masonry,  and  the  well  appears  to  have  been  sunk  through  a  mix- 
ture of  alluvial  soil  and  limestone  fragments  till  a  compact  bed  of  moun- 
tain limestone  was  reached,  having  a  horizontal  strata  which  could  be 
easily  worked,  and  the  interior  of  the  well  presents  the  appearance  of  be- 
ing lined  throughout  with  rough  masonry.  .  .  .  Robinson  states  that 
the  well  in  1838  was  105  feet  deep,  and  if  his  measurement  is  correct,  de- 
bris to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  has  accumulated  in  thirty-eight  years.  It  was 
undoubtedly  sunk  to  a  great  depth  for  the  purpose  of  securing,  even  in  ex- 
ceptionally dry  seasons,  a  supply  of  water,  which  at  great  depths  would 
always  be  filtering  through  the  sides  of  the  well  and  would  collect  at  the 
bottom."  i 

The  associations  of  this  place  carry  us  far  back  in  the  world's 
history  amid  pastoral  scenes  and  patriarchal  customs,  but  the 
event  which  the  Apostle  John  so  graphically  describes,  tran- 
scends all  others  in  interest  and  importance.  Here  in  the  very 
beginning  of  His  public  ministry  Jesus  revealed  Himself  to  a 
perplexed  inquirer  as  the  long  promised  Messiah,  the  Saviour 
of  the  world.  Standing  on  this  hallowed  spot  we  may  see  to- 
day all  the  distinctive  features  of  the  landscape  on  which  His 
eyes  rested  nearly  2,000  years  ago.  Here  are  the  twin  moun- 
tains which  rise  abruptly  from  the  plain  as  if  to  guard  the  en- 
trance to  the  narrow  vale  which  lies  between ;  the  wide  ex- 
panse of  the  vast  grain  field  which  stretches  away  to  the  north 
and  south ;  the  sites  of  Salim  and  Sychar  and  Shechem  within 
easy  reach ;  the  place  of  worship  on  the  summit  of  the  sacred 
mountain  of  the  Samaritans;  the  dusty  road  on  which  the 
lowly  Redeemer  travelled  skirting  the  base  of  this  mountain ; 
and,  stranger  than  all,  the  great  stone  recently  brought  to  the 

1  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  197. 


Flan  of 
lit  itt  over  Jtteol't  Writ 


RUINED    CRYPT,    AND   SECTION    OF  JACOB'S   WELL 


152  The  Land  of  Israel 

light  on  which  for  a  few  moments  He  rested  His  weary  limbs 
at  the  midday  hour. 

Sychar  has  been  identified  with  Askar,  a  small  modern  vil- 
lage on  the  site  of  an  older  town  at  the  eastern  base  of  Mount 
Ebal.  It  is  about  a  half-mile  north  of  Jacob's  well  and  less 
than  two  miles  northeast  of  Nablous.  "  The  survey  investiga- 
tions have  shown  that  the  ancient  Samaritan  name  of  this  vil- 
lage closely  approached  the  Hebrew  Sychar,  and  the  error  first 
made  by  the  Crusaders,  who  confounded  Sychar  with  Shechem, 
may  now  be  corrected  through  the  explorations  which  prove 
the  antiquity  and  ancient  name  of  the  village  Askar  near 
Jacob's  well."  l 

Joseph's  Tomb  is  on  a  slight  elevation  between  Jacob's 
well  and  Sychar.  It  is  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  mouth  of  the 
valley.  The  location  accords  with  the  Biblical  narrative  and  for 
many  centuries  it  has  been  held  in  reverence  by  Jews,  Samaritans, 
Moslems,  and  Christians,  as  the  burial-place  of  Joseph. 

Belata,  a  little  village  a  short  distance  due  west  of  the  well, 
according  to  the  Samaritan  and  early  Christian  traditions, 
marks  the  place  of  "the  oak  which  was  by  Shechem."  (Gen. 
xxxv.  4.)  This  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  "oak  of 
Moreh  "  (Gen.  xii.  6);  "the  oak  that  was  by  the  Sanctuary 
of  the  Lord  "(Josh.  xxiv.  26);  and  "  the  oak  of  the  pillar  that 
was  in  Shechem."  (Judg.  ix.  6.) 

Salim  (Salem),  the  ancient  Shalem,  is  situated  on  the  east- 
ern arm  of  the  plain  of  Mukhna  about  two  miles  northeast  of 
Jacob's  well.  It  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  sojourn 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18)  and  in  the  New  Testament  as  a 
city  near  ^Enon.  (John  iii.  23.) 

/Enon  has  been  identified  by  the  Survey  party  with  Ainun 
six  miles  north  of  Salim  at  the  head  of  the  Wady  Farah.  The 
statement  of  the  Evangelist  that  there  was  much  water,  or  many 
waters,  there  would  seem  to  imply  that  it  was  not  very  near  to 
the  Jordan. 

'  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  125. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  153 

simply  means  <  springs '  the  plural  of  the  oft  re- 
curring Ain  or  En.  The  situation  was  a  central  one,  ap- 
proachable also  from  the  northward  and  from  all  Samaria,  and 
by  the  central  main  road  from  the  south.  The  assumption  that 
the  place  where  John  baptized  must  have  been  in  Judea,  at  least 
not  in  Samaria,  is  without  show  of  proof."  1 

«•  Of  the  numerous  sites  previously  proposed  there  is  no  other  which 
unites  every  requisite  of  name  and  water  supply.  Other  ^Enons  exist  far 
from  any  Salim,  and  other  Salims  in  water  districts  where  no  name  ALnon 
is  found ;  but  in  the  Great  Wady  Farah,  which,  starting  at  Shechem, 
formed  the  north  boundary  of  Judea,  in  the  Jordan  valley,  we  find  a  site 
which  appears  to  satisfy  every  requirement  and  to  agree  well  with  the 
new  identification  of  Bethabara."2 

Doctor  Thomson  and  others  dissent  from  this  conclusion  and 
regard  this  site  as  one  of  the  number  not  yet  identified. 

Tulluza  at  the  head  of  the  Wady  Farah  was  formerly  re- 
garded as  the  probable  site  of  Tirzah,  but  the  Survey  party  has 
decided  in  favor  of  Teiasir  a  small  village  eleven  miles  north- 
east of  Shechem.  It  stands  on  a  fertile  plateau  close  to  the 
southern  border  of  Issachar.  "The  beauty  of  the  position," 
says  Major  Conder,  * '  and  the  richness  of  the  plain  on  the  west, 
the  ancient  remains,  and  the  old  main  road  to  the  place  from 
Shechem  seem  to  agree  well  with  the  idea  of  its  having  been 
once  a  capital ;  and  if  I  am  right  in  the  suggestion,  then  the 
old  sepulchres  are  probably,  some  of  them,  those  of  the  early 
kings  of  Israel  before  the  royal  family  began  to  be  buried  in 
Samaria."  3  Tirzah  was  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  and  its 
king  appears  in  the  list  of  the  rulers  subdued  by  Joshua.  (Josh, 
xii.  24.)  It  became  the  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Jeroboam.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  succes- 
sors of  Jeroboam  until  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Omri. 
Tirzah  was  notable  among  the  cities  of  Israel  for  its  beauty. 
(Cant.  vi.  4.)  At  Tirzah  Menahem  organized  a  formidable 

1  Henderson's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  154.         *  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  125. 
3  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  86. 


154 


The  Land  of  Israel 


rebellion  against  Shallum  and  thence  went  up  to  Samaria,  who:*  j 
he  slew  Shallum  and  reigned  in  his  stead.  (2.  Kings  xv.  14.) 
Thebez,  now  known  as  Tubas,  is  a  prosperous  village  a  short 
distance  southwest  of  Teiasir.  It  lies  in  a  little  valley  among  the 
mountains  and  is  almost  surrounded  Ly  olive  groves.  Here 
Abimelech  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  a  woman,  who  cast  a 
mill  stone  down  from  the  wall  upon  his  head.  (Judg.  ix. 

5°-57-) 

Bezek  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  a  ruin  called  Ibzik, 
directly  north  of  Tubas.  At  Bezek  Saul  assembled  his  army 
before  he  crossed  the  Jordan  to  the  rescue  of  the  men  of  Jabesh 
Gilead.  (i  Sam.  xi.  8.)  It  is  thirteen  miles  from  Shechem 
on  the  Bethshan  road,  and  is  directly  opposite  the  site  of  Jabesh 
Gilead. 

Samaria  (Sebaste)  has  been  already  described.  It  is  five 
miles  northwest  of  Shechem. 

Dothan  is  ten  miles  north  of  Shechem.  The  probable  site 
of  Bethulia  associated  with  the  heroic  exploit  of  Judith,  is 
Mithilia  four  miles  southeast  of  Dothan.  (Judith  iv.  6,  xvi. 

21.) 

Awertah,  which  the  Samaritans  identify  with  Gibeah 
Phinehas  (Josh.  xxiv.  33),  is  situated  on  a  little  knoll,  which 
ri^es  in  the  middle  of  the  plain  of  Mukhna,  about  three  miles 
south  of  Jacob's  Well.  The  reputed  tombs  of  Eleazar  and 
Phinehas,  the  son  and  grandson  of  Aaron  are  close  to  the  vil- 
lage. They  have  been  sketched  and  accurately  described  by 
the  Survey  party.  Awertah  was  occupied  as  a  Samaritan  city 
until  the  seventh  century.  The  supposition  that  these  vener- 
ated structures  represent  the  burial-places  of  Eleazar  and  his 
family  is  supported  alike  by  Jewish,  Samaritan  and  Christian 
tradition.  "The  Monument  of  Phinehas  appears  to  be  of 
great  antiquity,  but  that  of  Eleazar  has  been  rebuilt."  l  The 
traditional  tomb  of  Ithamar  is  also  shown  below  the  village 
under  a  grove  of  olive  trees. 

»  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  112. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  155 

Taanath  Shiloh  (Josh.  xvi.  6)  has  been  identified  with 
Ta'ana  four  miles  southeast  of  Shalim. 

Arumah,  the  residence  of  Abimelech,  is  represented  by  El 
Orma,  a  small  village  on  the  Mukhna  plain,  six  miles  south- 
east of  Shechem.  (Judg.  ix.  41.) 

Janoah  (Yanum),  a  frontier  town  of  Ephraim,  lies  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  hills  which  trend  toward  the  Jordan.  It  is 
three  miles  east  of  El  Orma.  (Judg.  xvi.  6,  7.) 

Timnath  Serah  (Timnath  Heres)  the  possession  and  burial- 
place  of  Joshua  has  been  identified  by  the  Survey  party  with  a 
village  called  Kefr  Haris,  ten  miles  southwest  of  Shechem. 
"A  sacred  shrine  exists  outside  the  village  to  which  the  name 
Neby  Lusha  (no  doubt  a  corruption  of  Yehusha,  or  Joshua)  is 
applied.  Ancient  tradition  also  places  the  tomb  of  Nun  at  this 
same  village,  and  a  second  sacred  place  called  Neby  Nun  was 
found  close  to  the  supposed  site  of  the  tomb  of  Joshua. "  l  As 
regards  these  sepulchres,  says  Major  Conder,  we  have  an  accord 
between  four  distinct  lines  of  tradition  and  the  existence  of  the 
name  of  Mount  Heres  in  the  modern  form  of  Haris.  (See 
Judg.  ii.  9 ;  Josh.  xix.  50,  xxiv.  30.) 

Tiphsah  the  scene  of  a  cruel  outrage  in  the  reign  of  King 
Manahem  (2  Kings  xv.  16),  is  probably  represented  by  a  vil- 
lage eight  miles  southwest  of  Shechem,  which  bears  the  name 
of  Tafsah. 

Shiloh,  now  known  as  Seilun,  lies  in  a  secluded  upland  val- 
ley, a  short  distance  east  of  the  great  northern  highway.  It  is 
twelve  miles  from  Shechem  and  nine  miles  north  of  Bethel. 
"The  proofs,"  says  Dr.  Robinson,  "that  Seilun  is  actually  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Shiloh,  lies  within  a  small  compass :  and 
both  the  name  and  the  position  are  sufficiently  decisive.  The 
full  form  of  the  Hebrew  name  was  apparently  Shilon,  as  we 
find  it  in  the  gentile  noun  Shilonite.  The  position  of  Shiloh 
is  very  definitely  described  in  the  book  of  Judges  as  on  the 
north  side  of  Bethel,  on  the  east  side  of  the  highway  that  goeth 
1  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  1 1 1. 


156 


The  Land  of  Israel 


up  from  Bethel  to  Shechem,  and  on  the  south  of  Lebonah." 
(Judg.  xxi.  19.)  The  ruins  of  Shiloh  are  scattered  over  a 
little  knoll,  which  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley.  Ex- 
cept a  narrow  opening  to  the  south  this  valley  or  plain  is  shut 
in  on  all  sides  by  a  circlet  of  hills.  "  Northward  the  Tell 
slopes  down  to  a  broad  shoulder,  across  which  a  sort  of  level 
court,  77  feet  wide  by  412  long,  has  been  cut.  Most 
probably  here  stood  the  tabernacle  which  was,  according  to 
rabbinical  tradition,  a  building  of  low  stone-walls,  with  the 
tent  drawn  over  the  top.  The  spring  (Judg.  xxi.),  is  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  northeast,  up  a  narrow  valley  on  the  sides  of 
which  are  rock-cut  tombs;  in  some  of  these  the  old  high 
priests  of  Israel  may  have  been  laid."  l  Shiloh  was  the  resting 
place  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  religious  centre  of  the  Israelites 
for  more  than  300  years.  (Josh,  xviii.  i.)  At  Shiloh  Joshua 
completed  the  division  of  the  land  according  to  the  lot  which 
was  cast  for  them  after  the  several  portions  had  been  "  de- 
scribed by  cities  into  seven  parts  in  a  book."  (Josh,  xviii. 
6-1  o.)  Here  Eli  ministered  as  high  priest  and  Samuel  grew 
up  in  the  service  of  the  Sanctuary.  Shiloh  was  the  residence 
of  the  prophet  Ahijah,  when  the  wife  of  Jeroboam  came  to  in- 
quire of  him,  concerning  her  son,  who  had  fallen  sick,  (i 
Kings  xiv.  17.) 

The  site  of  Shiloh  is  utterly  desolate.  The  rich  soil  has 
been  swept  from  the  valleys  around  it  and  the  hills  where  once 
grew  the  olive  and  the  vine  have  lost  all  the  glory  of  their 
former  covering  and  are  now  a  corrugated  mass  of  bare  shelv- 
ing rocks. 

"  Go  ye  now  unto  my  place,  which  was  in  Shiloh,  where  I  set  my 
name  at  the  first,  and  see  what  I  did  to  it  for  the  wickedness  of  my  peo- 
ple." (Jer.  vii.  12.) 

Lebonah  (Lubban)  is  three  miles  northwest  of  Shiloh.  It  is 
mentioned  only  in  Judges  xxi.  19,  in  connection  with  Shiloh. 

1  Henderson's  Geography,  p.  94. 


The  Mountains  of  Ephraim  i57 

Gilgal  (Jiljilia)  is  four  miles  south  of  Lebonah  and  seven 
north  of  Bethel.  It  is  situated  on  a  high  ridge  near  the  western 
brow  of  the  range.  This  is  the  Gilgal  where  Samuel  established 
one  of  the  schools  of  the  Prophets.  From  Gilgal  Elijah  went 
to  Bethel  and  thence  to  Jericho  on  his  last  visit  to  the  "  sons  of 
the  prophets."  (2  Kings  ii.  i,  iv.  38.) 

This  place  should  be  distinguished  from  Gilgal  (Jiljulia)  on 
the  plain  of  Sharon,  and  also  from  the  Gilgal  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  where  Israel  encamped,  after  the  passage  of  the  river. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE    MOUNTAINS   OF   BENJAMIN 

THE  possession  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  narrow  strip  of  low  land  on  the  Jordan  plain,  was  a 
rugged  mass  of  mountain  territory  extending  from  the  border 
line  of  Ephraim  to  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Zion.  The 
habitable  portion  of  this  highland  district  was  limited  mainly 
to  its  flattened  summit,  or  watershed,  which  is  about  twelve 
miles  in  length  by  two  to  five  in  breadth.  It  has  no  broad 
fertile  valleys,  nor  perennial  streams,  nor  continuous  cross- 
ridges,  as  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim.  One  of  its  char- 
acteristic features  is  a  succession  of  isolated  knolls  which  rise 
here  and  there  out  of  the  table-land  "  suggesting  by  their  very 
appearance  either  the  site  of  fortresses  or  high  places  for  wor- 
ship." Most,  if  not  all,  of  these  "little  hills"  mark  the  site 
of  an  ancient  fenced  city  or  town.  While  their  summits  were 
utilized  for  defence,  the  slopes  were  terraced  and  carefully  cul- 
tivated. The  portion  of  Benjamin  was  never  an  agricultural 
region,  however.  It  was  a  mountain  fastness,  whose  rugged 
surface  and  "munitions  of  rock"  were  accounted  its  chief  ex- 
cellence :  a  land,  as  one  has  described  it,  "more  fit  for  the 
building  of  barriers  than  for  the  cultivation  of  food."  While 
this  is  admitted  it  is  evident,  also,  to  every  passing  traveller 
that  it  was  not  always  a  land  given  over  to  barrenness  and  des- 
olation. The  thickly  clustered  sites  of  its  ancient  towns  are 
the  witnesses  to-day,  as  they  have  been  for  ages,  that  this  nar- 
row plateau  was  capable  of  sustaining  a  population,  at  least,  as 
large  as  that  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  in  its  most  prosperous 
days. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  it  was  preeminently  a  pastoral  re- 

168 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  J-59 

gion,  it  should  be  noted  that  its  terraced  slopes  and  alluvial 
basins,  although  limited  in  area,  were  capable  of  producing  as 
bountiful  crops  and  as  luscious  fruits  as  any  other  portion  of 
the  land.  It  is  also  true  that  in  no  other  part  of  the  country 
was  it  possible  for  neglect  and  disaster  to  entail  such  wide- 
spread destruction  to  field  and  vineyard.  As  we  see  it  now  it 
is  a  land  ///  ruins,  as  well  as  a  land  of  ruins.  Its  groves  have 
been  cut  down ;  its  streams  have  been  dried  up  at  the  fountain 
head ;  its  terraced  walls  have  been  destroyed  or  removed ;  the 
underlying  rocks  of  vineyard  and  olive-yard  have  been  washed 
clean  and  bare;  and  the  rich  soil  which  once  covered  them 
has  been  swept  away  by  winds  and  winter  torrents  into  the 
wadies  and  ravines,  and  thence  into  the  great  plains  below. 

The  most  conspicuous  elevation,  on  the  plateau,  north  of 
Jerusalem  is  Neby  Samwil,  the  probable  site  of  Mizpeh.  It 
is  five  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem  and  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  outer  circle  of  mountains  which  environ  it.  Its 
elevation  is  2,936  feet.  Neby  Samwil  was  first  identified  with 
Mizpeh,  the  watch  tower  of  Benjamin,  by  Dr.  Robinson. 
There  are  some  who  question  this  identification,  and  suggest 
Mount  Scopus  and  other  points  in  the  vicinity,  but  the  greater 
number  of  acknowledged  authorities  accept  it  without  hesita- 
tion. It  is  certain,  as  Canon  Tristram  suggests,  that  "no 
other  peak  in  Southern  Palestine  affords  such  a  panorama ": 
nor  is  there  any  other  that  would  be  so  likely  to  suggest  the 
name.  Its  modern  name,  Neby  Samwil — the  tomb  of  Samuel 
— was  given  it  by  the  natives,  who,  on  the  basis  of  a  very  an- 
cient tradition,  regard  this  peak  as  the  burial-place  of  Samuel. 

To  Mizpeh  the  people  of  Israel  were  assembled  to  take  coun- 
sel together  concerning  the  attitude  of  unjustifiable  rebellion 
assumed  by  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg.  xx.  i-n);  to  offer 
sacrifices  and  seek  deliverance  from  the  Philistines  (i  Sam.  vii. 
5-11);  and  again  to  ratify  the  selection  of  Saul  as  their  first 
king,  (i  Sam.  x.  17.)  It  was  one  of  the  three  points,  also, 
where  Samuel  regularly  judged  Israel,  (i.  Sam.  vii.  16.) 


160 


The  Land  of  Israel 


Dr.  Henderson  gives  the  following  statements  concerning  its 
relation  to  the  tabernacle  : 

Mizpeh  is  associated  with  Gibeon  "  the  great  high  place  "  in  several 
places;  and  Nob  is  similarly  conjoined  with  it  in  the  Talmud  (Quarterly 
75,  p.  37).  Conder's  suggestion  that  it  is  also  Nob  seems  not  improbable. 
It  is  remarkable  that  on  Neby  Samwil,  a  similar  levelled  platform  to  that 
at  Shiloh  has  been  traced.  "  There  is  a  scarp  of  rock  some  five  or  six 
feet  high  running  north  and  south,  a  narrow  trench  is  cut  between  this 
and  a  sort  of  platform  of  rock,  which  is  occupied  by  buildings.  North  of 
the  church  there  is  a  sort  of  sunk  court  about  250  feet  north  and  south, 
by  500  feet  east  and  west,  to  which  the  narrow  passage  leads.  On  the 
northeast  of  this  is  a  flat  platform  of  rock  reached  by  steps  with  a  cave 
below.  .  .  .  East  of  the  platforms  are  two  large  shallow  reservoirs 
communicating  with  one  another,  and  there  are  two  curious  shallow  re- 
cesses in  the  scrap"  (Memoirs  III.,  p.  151  A.  With  these,  at  Mizpeh 
and  Shiloh,  may  also  be  compared  the  platform  found  at  Kirjath  Jearim, 
where  a  place  was  made  for  the  ark,  similar  to  the  tabernacle  in  which  it 
should  have  been. l 

During  the  period  of  the  captivity  Mizpeh  was  the  scene  of 
the  massacre  of  Gedaliah  and  the  remnant  of  Judah  who 
had  gathered  around  him  for  protection.  (2  Kings  xxv.  22-25  ; 
Jer.  xli.  1-8.)  It  was  probably  the  "Mountjoye"  of  the 
Crusaders,  who,  from  this  outlook  gained  their  first  view  of  the 
Holy  City. 

The  three  notable  mountains,  Zion,  Moriah  and  Olivet,  in 
and  about  Jerusalem  can  be  studied  to  better  advantage  in  con- 
nection with  the  topography  of  the  city. 

Wadies  and  Ravines. — The  mountains  of  Benjamin  are 
deeply  furrowed  on  either  side  by  water  courses  and  ravines, 
which  may  readily  be  traced  on  the  contour  map. 

On  the  eastern  side  the  most  prominent  are  the  Wadies 
Nuweimeh  and  Kelt. 

Wady  Nuweimeh  begins  its  course  on  the  edge  of  the 
watershed  northeast  of  Bethel,  and,  passing  by  the  rock  Rim- 
mon  descends  rapidly  into  a  deep  gorge,  which  opens  out  into 
1  Henderson's  Geog.,  p.  175. 


WADY   SUWEINET 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  161 

the  plain  by  the  fountain,  called  Ain  Duk,  a  little  to  the  north 
of  the  site  of  ancient  Jericho.  An  old  road,  marked  for  some 
distance  by  a  Roman  pavement,  led  up  this  pass  to  Oprirah  on 
the  heights  of  Benjamin  and  thence  to  the  great  northern  road. 

Wady  Kelt,  directly  behind  Jericho,  enters  the  plain  on  its 
south  side  passing  close  by  the  village  of  Riha,  on  or  near  the 
site  of  the  Roman  Jericho.  The  high  mountain  called  Quar- 
antana,  the  traditional  mount  of  the  Temptation,  towers  up 
nearly  a  thousand  feet  between  the  openings  of  these  ravines. 
The  sides  of  the  Wady  Kelt  and  the  face  of  this  precipitous 
cliff  are  literally  honeycombed  with  cells  and  chapels,  which 
were  occupied  by  the  Hermits  of  the  fourth  and  succeeding 
centuries.  Wady  Kelt  is  the  wildest  and  deepest  ravine  or  glen 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  formed  by  the  converg- 
ence of  several  wadies  which,  rising  at  different  points,  drain 
the  greater  portion  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  plateau.  The 
Wady  Suweinet  is  the  most  important  of  these  branch 
valleys,  and  the  Wady  Kelt,  into  which  it  passes,  may  be  re- 
garded as  its  lower  basin.  "  It  is  a  steep,  almost  impassable, 
valley,  cleaving  the  land  from  the  Jordan  valley  up  to  Bethel  on 
the  watershed,  and  compelling  traffic  to  keep  to  the  central 
main  road."  This  line  of  natural  cleavage  was  the  probable 
route  of  Joshua's  army  of  invasion,  the  objective  point  in  the 
first  attack  being  Ai  at  the  head  of  the  valley.  The  position 
of  this  city  and  the  natural  features  of  the  defile  conform  to  all 
the  incidental  references  in  the  narrative.  (Josh.  viii.  3-23.) 
The  celebrated  Pass  of  Michmash  is  near  the  head  of  the 
Wady  Suweinet.  It  is  a  narrow  gorge,  or  canon,  800  feet 
deep,  "  with  a  sharp  rock  on  one  side,  and  a  sharp  rock  on  the 
other."  This  was  the  scene  of  Jonathan's  exploit,  (i  Sam. 
xiv.  4.)  He  and  his  armor-bearer  crossed  over  from  the  south- 
ern cliff  called  Seneh  to  Bozaz  on  the  northern  side. 

The  hiding-place  of  Elijah,  by  the  brook  Cherith  (i  Kings 
xvii.  3)  has  long  been  associated  with  the  Wady  Kelt.  While 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  prophet  could  hardly  have  found 


162 


The  Land  of  Israel 


a  safer  retreat,  it  seems  to  be  too  far  to  the  south  to  fit  in  nat- 
urally with  the  incidents  of  the  history.  There  is  no  positive 
or  satisfactory  proof  that  Elijah  visited  this  locality  at  that 
time,  and  it  seems  more  probable  that  he  retired  to  some  fa- 
miliar resort  "before  Jordan  "  in  the  land  of  Gilead. 

The  old  historic  road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem  crosses  the 
Wady  Kelt  near  its  mouth  and  for  a  short  distance  skirts  its 
southern  brink.  It  then  diverges  obliquely  to  the  south-west, 
and  crossing  one  or  two  low  ridges  enters  the  valley  leading  up 
to  Bethany,  known  as  the  Wady  el  Hod.  The  distance  be- 
tween these  points  is  only  thirteen  miles  in  a  direct  line,  but 
the  ascent  within  that  distance  is  3,620  feet. 

Of  the  twenty-six  cities  originally  assigned  to  Benjamin 
nearly  all  were  on  the  heights.  The  sites  of  several  of  them 
have  been  satisfactorily  identified. 

Gophna,  represented  by  the  modern  village  of  Jufna,  was 
a  border  town  on  the  western  side  of  the  plateau.  It  was  the 
most  northerly  town  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin,  and  was 
called  Ophni  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  (Josh,  xviii.  24.) 
At  this  place  the  Roman  road  to  Antipatris  diverges  from  the 
great  northern  highway.  Dr.  Thomson  says  that  traces  of  this 
road  are  still  visible,  and  in  some  places  the  pavement  is  almost 
entire.  Gophna  was  the  last  halting-place  of  Titus  on  his 
march  to  Jerusalem. 

Ophrah, mentioned  in  Joshuaxviii.  23  and  Judges  vi.  n, 
has  been  identified  with  a  village  called  Taiyebeh  thirteen 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  a  frontier  city  in  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  plateau  of  Benjamin.  It  seems  to  be  identi- 
cal also  with  Ephron  or  Ephraim  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  xiii. 
19  and  John  xi.  54.  Its  situation  on  a  hill  near  to  and  over- 
looking the  wilderness  would  make  it  a  desirable  place  for  the 
seclusion  and  retirement  which  Jesus  sought,  for  a  brief  inter- 
val, between  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus  and  the  scenes  con- 
nected with  the  feast  of  the  Passover. 

Bethel  (Beitin)  is  on  the  main  highway  ten  miles  north  of 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  163 

Jerusalem.  The  ridge  on  which  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
are  thickly  strewn,  is  2,890  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  characteristics  of  the  modern  village,  as  summed  up  by 
Dr.  Schaff,  are  "  about  two  dozen  Moslem  hovels,  the  ruins  of  a 
Greek  church,  a  very  large  cistern,  and  wild  rocks."  The  cis- 
tern referred  to  is  a  vast  reservoir  in  the  valley  southwest  of  the 
village.  It  is  314  feet  long  by  217  wide.  It  has  long  been 
a  broken  cistern  that  can  hold  no  water,  but  the  green  pastures 
around  it,  which  once  attracted  the  eye  of  Abraham,  indicate 
a  good  supply  of  water,  if  utilized  as  in  the  early  days,  for  flock 
and  herd.  Some  fig  trees  grow  amid  the  huge  boulders  around 
the  village,  and  bright-hued  flowers  abound,  but  with  these 
exceptions  the  place,  as  Major  Conder  puts  it,  seems  as  it  were 
turned  to  stone. 

The  first  halting  place  of  Abraham  on  his  journey  southward 
from  Shechem  was  "a  mountain  on  the  east  of  Bethel,  having 
Bethel  on  the  west,  and  Hai  on  the  east :  and  there  he  builded 
an  altar  unto  the  Lord,  and  called  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord." 
(Gen.  xii.  8.)  This  was  the  first  dedication  of  " the  place" 
as  it  is  afterward  called.  It  was  near  the  Canaanite  city 
called  Luz,  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  Hebrew  city  of 
Bethel.  The  ruins  of  Berj  Beitin  on  a  little  plateau  half-a- 
mile  east  of  Beitin  mark  the  probable  site  of  Abraham's  camp 
and  altar.  The  Jordan  valley  is  plainly  visible  from  this  spot. 
Farther  west  it  cannot  be  seen.  "Standing  just  here,  Lot 
could  see  the  ciccar,  or  plain  of  Jordan,  which  allured  him  by 
its  luxuriant  and  well-watered  pasturages  away  from  Abra- 
ham." 1  On  or  near  the  same  place  the  exiled  grandson  of 
Abraham  saw  the  vision  of  angels  on  the  terraced  ascent  that 
reached  to  heaven,  and  heard  the  voice  which  came  rolling 
down  the  awful  heights,  "Behold,  I  am  with  thee,  and  will 
keep  thee  in  all  places  whither  thou  goest  and  will  bring  thee 
again  into  this  land.  And  he  was  afraid,  and  said,  How 
dreadful  is  this  place  !  This  is  none  other  but  the  house  of 
1  Memoirs  II.,  p.  307. 


164:  The  Land  of  Israel 

God,  and  this  is  the  gate  of  heaven.  .  .  .  And  he  called 
the  name  of  that  place  Beth-el."  The  significance  of  this 
event  appears  in  the  statement  of  Jacob  long  afterward  in 
Egypt,  "God  Almighty  appeared  unto  me  at  Luz  in  the  land 
of  Canaan  and  blessed  me"  (Gen.  xlviii.  3):  and  still  more 
fully  in  the  words  of  Jesus  :  "  Hereafter  ye  shall  see  heaven 
open  and  the  angels  of  God  ascending  and  descending  upon 
the  Son  of  Man."  (John  i.  51.)  "That  Bethel  maintained 
a  reputation  as  a  sacred  place,  is  proved  by  the  narrative  of 
Judges  xx.  1 8,  (where  '  the  house  of  God  '  should  be  rendered 
Bethel) ;  while  from  verses  26-28  of  the  same  chapter  it  ap- 
pears that  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  there  in  those  days."  l 
Bethel  was  a  school  of  the  prophets  about  a  hundred  years  after 
it  became  a  high-place  for  the  worship  of  false  gods,  "and  it 
frequently  reappears  in  Old  Testament  history,  as  if  a  lingering 
remnant  of  true  Israelites  always  adhered  to  it."  (2  Kings  ii.  3, 
xvii.  28.)  The  prophetic  utterance  of  the  man  of  God,  who 
stood  by  the  altar  of  Jeroboam  and  cried  against  it  in  the  word 
of  the  Lord,  marks  the  turning  point  in  its  history,  (i  Kings 
xii.  32,  33,  xi.ii.  i-io.)  Its  present  condition  may  be  summed 
up  in  a  single  sentence,  the  utterance  of  a  later  prophet, 
"Bethel  shall  come  to  naught."  (Amos  v.  5.) 

Beth-aven  on  the  east  side  of  Bethel  (Josh.  vii.  2)  has 
left  no  trace  of  its  former  existence.  The  name  was  evidently 
applied  to  the  wilderness,  also,  which  bordered  it  on  the  edge 
of  the  plateau. 

Ai,  or  Hai  has  been  identified  by  the  survey  party  with  the 
ancient  ruins  of  Haiyan,  two  miles  east  of  Bethel.  The  name 
corresponds  with  Aina,  which  is  used  by  Josephus  as  the 
equivalent  of  Ai.  The  surroundings  of  Haiyan  conform  very 
closely  to  the  description  of  the  natural  features  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  of  Ai.  (Josh.  viii.  9-12.) 

A  conspicuous  knoll  a  short  distance  north  of  Haiyan  has 
also  been  suggested  as  a  possible  site.  Its  identification  with 
1  Henderson's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  56. 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  165 

Ai  is  based  mainly  on  the  significance  of  its  name,  Et  Tell 
(the  heap).  On  the  assumption  that  this  hillock  has  been  the 
site  of  an  ancient  city,  its  destruction  has  been  as  complete  as 
that  which  befel  the  city  of  Ai.  "  And  Joshua  burned  Ai,  and 
made  it  an  heap  forever,  even  a  desolation  unto  this  day." 
(Josh.  viii.  28.) 

Rock  Rimmon  is  nearly  four  miles  east  of  Bethel  on  the 
edge  of  the  plateau.  A  small  village,  which  still  bears  the 
name  Rummon,  clings  to  its  rugged  slopes.  The  cliff  rises 
several  hundred  feet  above  the  deep  ravine  which  borders  it  on 
the  north.  The  slopes  of  the  wilderness  below  are  full  of  caves 
and  hiding-places.  To  this  mountain  fastness  the  remnant  of 
the  children  of  Benjamin  fled  after  the  disastrous  series  of  bat- 
tles in  and  about  Gibeah,  and  here  they  remained  for  four 
months.  (Judg.  xx.  28-47.) 

Michmash  (Mukmas)  is  a  small  village  on  the  north  side 
of  the  pass  of  Michmash,  four  miles  southeast  of  Bethel. 
There  are  extensive  ruins  in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  village. 
At  this  point  may  be  seen  the  upper  basin  and  deep  gorge  of 
the  Wady  Suweinit ;  the  rock  up  which  Jonathan  climbed ;  the 
place  from  which  he  started  on  his  hazardous  descent  (i  Sam. 
xiii.  14);  and  portions  of  the  deep  cleft  of  the  Jordan  valley 
including  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Michmash  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  several  towns  of  Benjamin  on  the 
route  of  the  Assyrian  invader  from  the  north  to  Jerusalem. 
(Isa.  x.  28.)  It  was  reoccupied  by  the  children  of  Benjamin 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity.  (Neh.  xi.  31.) 

Geba  or  Jeba,  as  it  is  now  called,  was  on  the  south  side  of 
the  chasm  directly  opposite  Michmash  and  is  linked  with  it  in 
history  and  association.  In  the  reign  of  Josiah,  Geba  marked 
the  frontier  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  8.)  It 
was  strongly  fortified  by  Asa.  (i  Kings  xv.  22.)  After  the 
captivity  it  was  also  reoccupied. 

Beeroth,  now  Bireh,  was  an  ancient  city  of  the  Hivite  con- 
federacy. (Josh.  ix.  17.)  It  is  two  miles  southwest  of  Bethel 


166  The  Land  of  Israel 

on  the  northern  highway.  This  town  was  the  customary  rest- 
ing-place of  the  pilgrim  bands  on  their  return  from  the  great 
feasts  in  Jerusalem.  From  this  place,  according  to  tradition, 
Joseph  and  Mary  turned  back  to  seek  the  child  Jesus.  (Luke 
ii.  44.) 

Ram  ah  of  Benjamin  is  represented  by  the  modern  village 
of  Er  Ram.  It  is  situated  on  a  conical  hill  nearly  four  miles 
south  of  Bireh.  Ramah  was  fortified  by  Baasha,  king  of 
Israel,  in  order  to  stop  all  communication  with  Jerusalem,  (i 
Kings  xv.  17.)  It  was  afterward  destroyed  by  Asa,  who  took 
away  the  stones  and  timber  to  strengthen  Geba  and  Mizpeh. 
(i  Kings  xv.  22.)  It  is  mentioned  several  times  in  connection 
with  the  earlier  periods  of  Hebrew  history.  (Josh,  xviii.  25  ; 
Judg.  iv.  5,  etc.)  This  is  one  of  the  many  Ramahs,  or  "  high- 
places  "  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  history.  It  has  often 
been  associated  with  the  birthplace  of  Samuel,  but  this  is  as  yet, 
an  unknown  site,  within  the  limits,  as  originally  defined,  of 
Mount  Ephraim.  (i  Sam.  i.  i.) 

Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  called  also  Gibeah  of  Saul,  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  ruins  on  the  top  of  a 
conspicuous  cone-shaped  hill,  which  bears  the  modern  name, 
Tell  el  Ful  (Hill  of  Beans).  This  location  is  not  regarded  by 
the  Survey  party  as  a  suitable  one  for  a  city  with  the  history 
connected  with  Gibeah.  Conder  is  inclined  to  identify  it  with 
Geba,  but  he  also  recognizes  the  apparent  use  of  the  name  to 
cover  a  district  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  plateau.  "  The 
similarity  in  the  names,"  says  Doctor  Thomson,  "  is  strongly 
in  favor  of  Major  Conder' s  theory  and  against  Tell  el  Ful, 
since,  if  the  latter  was  Gibeah,  there  would  then  have  been 
three  cities  near  together,  and  in  sight  of  each  other,  bearing 
radically  the  same  names,  Gibeon,  Gibeah,  and  Geba — a  con- 
junction without  example,  and  one  likely  to  prove  in  practice  a 
soui — i  of  confusion."  Gibeah  is  frequently  mentioned  in  con- 
nect^ i  with  the  periods  of  the  Judges  and  Kings,  but  was  spe- 
cially notable  as  the  scene  of  two  of  the  most  tragic  events  in 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  167 

the  history  of  the  land.  One  was  connected  with  the  almost 
total  annihilation  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg.  xix.  and 
xx.)  ;  the  other  was  an  act  of  retributive  justice  which  fell  upon 
seven  of  the  direct  descendants  of  king  Saul.  One  of  the  most 
pathetic  incidents  in  the  records  of  the  Hebrew  nation  was  the 
lonely  watch  of  Rizpah,  the  mother  of  two  of  the  young  men 
who  were  hanged  at  Gibeah.  (2.  Sam.  xxi.  1-14.) 

Tell  el  Ful  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  signal,  or  beacon, 
stations  on  the  heights  of  Benjamin.  It  is  two  miles  south  of 
Ramah,  and  four  north  of  Jerusalem. 

Anathoth  (Anata)  is  situated  on  a  broad  ridge,  near  the 
road,  three  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  a  Levitical 
city  (Josh.  xxi.  18)  :  the  place  of  Abiathar's  banishment  (i 
Kings  ii.  26);  and  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 
(Jer.  i.  i.) 

The  Beth-horons — Upper  and  Lower — have  occupied  their 
original  locations,  at  the  head  of  the  famous  pass  of  Beth-horon 
for  nearly  4,000  years.  The  road  from  Gibeon,  to  the  upper 
town  while  descending  at  some  points  is  mainly  an  ascent ; 
hence  called  the  "  going  up  "  to  Beth-horon.  (Josh.  x.  10,  u.) 
The  descent  to  the  lower  is  very  rugged  and  steep  and  in 
places  steps  were  cut  in  the  rock.  This  was  the  "  going  down  " 
to  Beth-horon.  The  lower  Beth-horon  was  at  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  territory  of  Benjamin.  Both  were  border  towns, 
their  assignment  being  with  Ephraim,  but  their  history  and  as- 
sociations with  Benjamin.  They  were  situated  on  either  side 
of  the  pass,  but  the  distance  between  is  nearly  two  miles.  "  It 
takes  an  hour  to  climb  from  the  lower  village  to  the  higher, 
and  one  feels  that  either  in  ascending  or  descending,  a 
hostile  force  would  fare  ill  at  the  hands  of  a  determined 
enemy,  whether  defending  the  pass,  or  pursuing  a  retreating 
host." 

Gibeon,  now  El  Jib,  stands  on  an  isolated,  rounded  hill 
about  six  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  The  hill  is  belted  by 
horizontal  strata  of  limestone  cut  into  steps  or  terraces  by  the 


168  The  Land  of  Israel 

action  of  the  winds  and  rains.     It  is  nearly  surrounded  by  n 
fertile  plain  formed  by  the  convergence  of  several  valleys. 

"  Corn  fields  and  olive-yards  surround  it,  and  the  vines  run  down  the 
terraced  sides  of  the  old  site,  which,  strengthened  artificially  by  rock-cut 
scarps,  presents  a  magnificent  position  for  an  ancient  fortress.  The  mod- 
ern village  is  of  stone,  and  contains  an  old  Crusading  church,  and  under 
its  houses  are  rock-cut  tombs,  perhaps  as  old  as  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  the  Holy  Land  by  Israel."  » 

East  of  the  hill  is  a  fine  spring  issuing  from  an  excavation  in 
the  rock.  Below  it  among  a  group  of  straggling  olive  trees  is  a 
broken  reservoir,  which  measures  120  by  100  feet.  This  is  the 
"pool  of  Gibeon"  where  the  bands  of  Joab  and  Abner  met  in 
deadly  conflict.  (2  Sam.  ii.  13.)  Gibeon  was  the  chief  of  the 
four  Hivite  cities  which  surrendered  to  Joshua.  By  a  clever 
ruse  its  inhabitants  beguiled  the  Hebrew  leader  and  secured 
an  alliance  which  saved  them  from  the  destruction  that  befel 
their  former  allies. 

The  great  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of  the  Amorite  con- 
federacy began  at  Gibeon  and  ended  in  the  utter  rout  of  the 
enemies  of  Israel,  who  were  driven  headlong  down  the  Beth- 
horon  pass.  (Josh.  x.  10,  n.)  Amasa  was  treacherously  slain 
by  the  Great  Stone  in  Gibeon  and  near  the  same  spot  many 
years  afterward  retribution  came  to  Joab,  his  murderer,  by  the 
hand  of  Benaiah,  the  chief  captain  of  Solomon.  (2  Sam.  xx. 
10 ;  i  Kings  ii.  29-34.) 

At  Gibeon  the  tabernacle  was  set  up  after  the  slaughter  of 
the  priests  by  Saul.  Here  a  brazen  altar  was  erected  in  front 
of  the  tabernacle  and  upon  that  altar  Solomon  offered  a  thou- 
sand burnt-offerings.  Here,  also,  the  young  King  chose 
wisdom  above  the  other  gifts  to  be  had  for  the  asking,  (i  Kings 
iii  4-15.) 

/Sob,  the  city  of  the  priests,  was  on  one  of  the  hills  near  to 
Jerusalem,  but  its  exact  site  has  not  been  determined,  (i  Sam. 
xxi.  i,  xxii.  9-19.) 

1  Conder's  Bib.  Geog.,  p.  73. 


The  Mountains  of  Benjamin  169 

Identifications  for  other  places  of  minor  importance  have  been  sug- 
gested as  follows:  Archi  (Josh.  xvi.  2)  identified  with  Ain  Arik,  six 
miles  west  of  Bethel ;  Sechu  ( I  Sam.  xix.  22)  with  Khurbet  Suweikeh,  one 
and  a-half  miles  south  of  Beeroth ;  Baal  Tamar  (Josh.  xx.  33)  with 
Attara;  Gcclerah  (I  Chron.  xii.  14)  with  Jedireh,  one  mile  northeast  of 
Gibeon;  Ananiah  (Neh.  xi.  32)  with  Beit  Hanina,  near  Gibeon;  Hazor 
(Neh.  xi.  33)  with  Hazzur,  near  Beit  Hanina  ;  Gibeath  (Josh,  xviii.  28) 
with  Jibia,  northwest  of  Neby  Samwil;  Kirjath  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii. 
28)  with  Kuriet  el  Anab,  formerly  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Kirjath 
Jearim;  Mozah  (Josh,  xviii.  26)  with  Beit  Mizza,  five  miles  northwest  of 
Jerusalem;  Chesalon  (Josh.  xv.  10)  with  Kesla,  west  of  Jerusalem;  Parah 
(Josh,  xviii.  23)  with  Farah,  six  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem ;  Alemeth  or 
Almon  (I  Chron.  vi.  60)  with  Almit,  three  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem; 
Debir,  in  pass  called  Ed-Debr,  near  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho, 
about  midway  between  these  cities;  Eleph  (Josh,  xviii.  28)  with  Lifta, 
two  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

JERUSALEM   AND   ITS   ENVIRONS 

JERUSALEM  lies  on  a  spur,  or  broken  section,  of  table- 
land near  the  eastern  edge  of  the  great  watershed  of  the 
country.  It  is  thirty  miles  south  of  Shechem ;  thirty-two  in  a 
direct  line  from  the  sea ;  and  eighteen  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Jordan.  Its  position,  as  indicated  by  the  Survey,  is  latitude 
31°  47'  north,  and  longtitude  35°  14'  east.  Its  parallel  of 
latitude  touches  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  intersects 
the  coast  line  of  the  Mediterranean  at  a  point  a  little  north  of 
Ashdod.  The  elevation  of  Jerusalem  is  about  2,500  feet  above 
the  Mediterranean,  and  3,800  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  section  of  the  plateau  on  which  the  city  stands  is  almost 
separated  from  the  adjoining  table-land  by  two  deep  valleys,  or 
ravines,  which  sweep  closely  around  it  on  three  sides.  "  These 
valleys,  at  first  mere  shallow  depressions  in  the  ground,  take 
their  rise  within  a  few  yards  of  each  other,  and  at  an  altitude  of 
2,650  feet  above  the  sea,  in  the  gentle  undulation  which  at  that 
point  parts  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  from  those  of  the 
Jordan  Valley.  Separating  at  once,  they  soon  take  one  of  those 
rapid  plunges  downward  so  characteristic  of  the  wild  glens  of 
Judea,  and,  after  encircling  the  plateau,  meet  again  at  Bir 
Eyub  (the  well  of  Job),  672  feet  below  their  original  starting 
point;  hence  united  as  the  Wady  en  Nar,  '  Valley  of  Fire,' 
they  pass  by  a  deep  gorge  through  the  Wilderness  of  Judea  to 
the  Dead  Sea."  1 

From  the  point  where  it  touches  the  city  wall  the  eastern,  or 
Kedron  valley,  runs  nearly  due  south.  The  western,  or 
Hinnom  valley  runs  southward  along  the  western  side  of  the 

>  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  2. 


Plan,    of 

sfnc  lent  Jerusalem 


ANCIENT  JERUSALEM 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  171 

city  and  then  turns  eastward  to  Bir  Eyub,  where  it  joins  the 
Kedron,  or  Jehoshaphat,  valley.  In  former  times  these  en- 
circling ravines  were  much  deeper,  and  their  sides  more 
precipitous  than  now.  Excavations  have  shown  that  rubbish 
to  the  depth  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet  has  accumulated  in  the 
Kedron  valley,  and  that  the  original  bed  of  the  stream  has  been 
pushed  eastward  as  much  as  seventy  feet  by  avalanches  of 
debris  from  the  heights  above  it.  The  walls  of  the  ancient 
city,  as  might  be  expected,  conformed  to  these  lines  of  natural 
defence,  making  the  stronghold  which  they  enclosed  one  of  the 
most  notable  in  human  history.  On  the  east,  south  and  west 
it  was  practically  unassailable.  On  the  north  there  was  no 
natural  break  between  the  shelving  plateau,  on  which  Jerusalem 
was  built,  and  the  table-land  which  adjoined  it.  This  was  the 
only  quarter,  therefore,  in  which  there  was  room  for  ex- 
pansion, but  it  was  also  the  exposed  portion  of  the  line  of 
defence ;  hence  it  was  necessary  to  guard  it  with  fortifications 
of  great  strength.  Before  the  disastrous  siege  of  the  Romans 
under  Titus,  this  quarter  of  the  city  was  defended  by  three  lines 
of  massive  walls,  separated  from  each  other  by  considerable 
distances.  Each  of  these  was  strengthened,  at  intervals,  by 
immense  towers,  and  protected  in  front  by  deep,  artificial  moats 
or  ditches.  These  walls,  which  were  frequently  broken  down 
or  swept  away  by  besieging  armies  were  not  always  replaced  on 
the  old  foundations ;  and  hence  there  is  much  uncertainty  in 
regard  to  their  relative  positions.  With  this  exception,  the 
natural  features  of  the  place  furnish  the  clue  to  the  direction  and 
sweep  of  the  ancient  walls.  Where  these  have  not  been  actually 
traced  they  may  be  inferred  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty. 

The  recovery  of  Jerusalem,  as  far  as  it  has  been  accomplished, 
has  dispelled  the  idea  that  it  was  always  a  small  place,  or  that 
the  present  circlet  of  walls,  which  leaves  out  more  than  one- 
half  of  Mount  Zion,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  counterpart  of  the 
walls  which  surrounded  the  city  of  David  or  of  Herod. 

"  The  Mountains  round  about  Jerusalem  "  are  higher  than 


172 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  spur  on  which  the  city  stands.  The  only  natural  or  con- 
tinuous break  in  this  circuit  is  the  valley  of  Rephaim  on  the 
southwest.  Beginning  with  this  break  the  first  of  the  series  is 
the  Mount,  or  Hill,  of  Evil  Counsel  to  the  south ;  the  next  to 
the  southeast  of  the  city  is  the  Mount  of  Offence,  an  offshoot 
from  the  Mount  of  Olives ;  directly  east  is  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
or  the  portion  of  the  ridge  to  which  the  name  is  commonly 
applied ;  on  the  north  the  upper  part  of  this  triple  crowned 
mountain  which  curves  around  as  if  to  shield  the  city  is  known 
as  Mount  Scopus ;  to  the  northwest,  but  farther  removed  than 
any  other  peak  of  the  group,  is  Neby  Samwil  or  Mizpeh  ;  to  the 
west,  an  undulating  ridge  with  occasional  peaks  of  slightly 
higher  elevation. 

Internal  Divisions. — The  site  included  within  the  walls,  as 
already  defined,  was  divided  into  two  unequal  ridges,  running 
north  and  south,  by  a  deep  ravine,  called  the  Tyropoaon  valley. 
This  depression  begins  on  the  higher  level  of  the  plateau,  be- 
tween the  surrounding  valleys,  and  extends  southward  to  the 
Kedron,  which  it  enters  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  val- 
ley of  Hinnom.  The  ridge  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Tyro- 
pceon  is  Mount  Moriah,  on  which  stood  the  temple  and  all  the 
imposing  buildings  connected  with  it.  The  ridge  on  the  west- 
ern side  is  1 20  feet  higher  than  Moriah.  It  is  broader  in  ex- 
tent and  has  a  much  larger  area  of  available  space  for  buildings 
and  defensive  works.  In  the  earlier  period  of  Jewish  history 
this  ridge  was  probably  distinguished  from  the  other  by  the 
name  Zion.  The  city  of  David,  the  Palace  of  Herod  and  three 
of  the  most  noted  towers — Hippicus,  Phasaelus  and  Mariamne 
were  on  this  side  of  the  valley.  "  The  researches  of  Captains 
Wilson  and  Warren  have  shown  that  the  Tyropceon  valley  has 
been  filled  up  to  the  depth  of  1 20  feet  between  Zion  and  Moriah 
at  the  southwest  angle  of  the  Temple  area :  and  that  the  rock 
here  must  have  been  inaccessible  until  a  bridge  was  thrown 
across  the  intervening  space."  l 

1  Tristram's  Holy  Land,  p.  129. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs 

A  lateral  valley,  which  started  very  near  the  present  Jaffa 
gate  on  the  west,  ran  in  an  eastern  direction  to  the  Tyropoeon 
valley,  separating  the  western  ridge  into  two  parts.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  this  valley,  a  depression  scarcely  noticeable  at 
the  present  time,  has  been  filled  up  with  rubbish  in  some  places 
to  a  depth  of  eighty  feet.  This  was  the  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  Upper  City  of  Josephus  and  the  Lower  City,  which 
occupied  the  northern  portion  of  the  ridge.  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  the  name  Zion  properly  applies  to  the  portion  south 
of  this  valley :  and  that  the  portion  designated  as  Acra  by 
Josephus,  lies  to  the  north  of  it. 

On  the  eastern  ridge  (Moriah)  a  rubbish-filled  valley  has  also 
been  traced.  "This  ravine, — the  <  Valley  called  Kedron,'  of 
Josephus, — rises  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  plateau  and  runs  into 
the  Kedron  a  short  distance  north  of  the  Golden  Gate ;  in  it 
lies  the  large  pool  known  as  the  Birket  Israil."  The  portion  of 
the  ridge  north  of  this  lateral  valley  is  called  Bezetha  (new 
Town),  while  that  which  lies  directly  south  of  it  is  known  as 
Moriah.  The  name  Ophel  was  applied  to  the  southern  spur 
of  Moriah,  which  projected  beyond  the  south  wall  of  the  tem- 
ple area. 

Summing  up  the  foregoing  in  brief  there  are  two  recognized 
divisions  on  the  western  side  of  the  Tyropoeon  valley — Acra 
and  Zion.  On  the  eastern  side  there  are  three  divisions — 
Bezetha,  Moriah  and  Ophel.  While  there  are  still  differences 
of  opinion  in  regard  to  some  of  these  subdivisions,  they  are  now 
generally  accepted  by  the  leading  authorities,  and  are  so  indi- 
cated on  the  Ordnance  map. 

Modern  Jerusalem. — The  Jerusalem  of  to-day  is  literally 
builded  upon  its  own  heap.  (Jer.  xxx.  18.)  Below  its  houses, 
courts  and  paved  streets  lie  the  rubbish  and  wreckage  of  not 
less  than  eight  cities  which  have  risen  in  successive  periods  and 
are  now  piled  one  above  the  other.  The  Holy  City  of  the 
Prophets,  Kings  and  Apostles  is  a  composite,  underground  city, 
which  can  only  be  studied  in  a  fragmentary  way  as  the  evi- 


The  Land  of  Israel 

dences  of  its  former  existence  and  greatness  are  laid  bare  oy 
the  pick  and  spade. 

"  If  we  examine  it,  we  have  to  determine  at  every  step,  among  the 
ruins  of  which  city  we  are  standing.  Solomon,  Nehemiah,  Herod,  Ha- 
drian, Constantine,  Omar,  Godfrey,  Saladin,  Suleiman— each  in  turn  repre- 
sents a  city."  * 

Skillfully  conducted  excavations  in  and  about  Jerusalem,  at 
various  times,  have  not  only  unearthed  many  interesting  re- 
mains of  this  underground  city,  but  have  given  approximate 
measurements  of  the  depth  of  the  successive  accumulations  in 
the  valleys  and  around  the  walls. 

The  rock  levels  and  general  contour  lines  of  the  entire  sur- 
face throughout  the  city  have  also  been  ascertained  by  the  sink- 
ing of  numerous  shafts. 

With  all  its  changes  there  is  much  of  the  Jerusalem  of  the 
past  that  still  remains.  The  mighty  framework  of  the  everlast- 
ing hills  on  which  it  rested ;  the  deep  valleys  which  surrounded 
it ;  and  the  mountains  which  stood  round  about  it — are  the  same 
in  all  their  essential  features  as  when  David  extolled  the  beauty 
of  its  situation,  or  when  Jesus  beheld  its  later  glories  and  wept 
over  it.  As  a  necessity  of  its  environment  Jerusalem  is  now, 
and  always  has  been,  "a  city  compactly  built  together." 

Its  streets  are  narrow ;  its  open  courts  few  and  limited  in 
area,  and  its  houses  are  massed  in  close  juxtaposition  in  the 
several  quarters.  Despite  all  the  changes  and  transformations 
of  recent  years  it  still  retains  the  appearance  of  a  great  fortress 
of  the  Middle  ages.  Its  massive  grey  walls  and  broad -leaved 
gates  and  flanking  towers ;  its  mosques  and  churches  and  con- 
vents ;  its  domes  and  minarets,  rising  conspicuously  above  the 
walls  and  flat  roofs  of  its  houses, — present  a  picture  of  marvel- 
lous beauty  and  impressiveness,  as  outlined  in  the  clear  sun- 
shine, from  Olivet  or  Scopus. 

The  walls,  which  now  enclose  the  city,  were  built,  or  rather 
i  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  67. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  1T5 

rebuilt,  by  Sultan  Suleiman  A.  D.,  1542.  They  rest,  for  the 
most  part  on  the  foundation  of  older  walls.  The  material  used 
was  drawn  from  the  rubbish  heaps  around  and  represents  the 
various  structures,  and  diverse  styles  of  workmanship  of  differ- 
ent nationalities  and  widely  separated  centuries.  "It  is  proba- 
ble," says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  that  the  present  west  wall,  from  the 
Tower  of  David  southward,  follows  the  course  of  the  first  wall, 
since  the  deep  valley  below  it  would  render  that  always  the 
necessary  line  for  that  part.  The  wall  which  crosses  Zion  east- 
ward to  the  Mosk  of  El  Aksa  is,  of  course,  modern,  both  in  its 
foundation  and  construction.  The  eastern  wall  of  the  Haram 
area  is  partly  ancient,  and  I  think  that  the  part  of  the  wall  at 
the  south  end  of  the  same  area  is  built  upon  foundations  as  old 
as  the  time  of  Herod,  though  most  of  the  work  above  ground 
is  evidently  of  later  date."1  The  Haram  wall  in  places  is 
sixty  and  seventy  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  in 
general  the  height  of  the  encircling  wall  ranges  from  twenty-five 
to  forty  feet.  Its  width  ranges  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet.  Its  cir- 
cuit is  about  two  and  a  half  miles.  In  outline  it  is  an  irregular 
quadrangle.  It  has  battlements,  salient  angles,  and,  at  inter- 
vals, is  strengthened  by  thirty-four  massive  square  towers.  The 
area  now  enclosed  is  210  acres,  but  if  we  add  to  this  the  avail- 
able space  not  included  on  the  north  and  south,  it  would  give 
to  the  city,  in  its  period  of  largest  extent,  a  circuit  of  over 
four  miles  and  an  area  of  nearly  1,000  acres.  This  would  ac- 
cord with  the  descriptions  of  its  former  extent  as  given  by 
Josephus. 

Gates. — There  are  six  open  gates  in  the  wall  which  sur- 
rounds the  city,  viz  :  The  Jaffa  Gate  on  the  west ;  the  New 
Gate  (Bab  Abdul  Hamid)  in  the  northwest  angle,  opened  in 
1889;  the  Damascus  Gate  on  the  north;  St.  Stephen's  Gate 
on  the  east ;  the  Gate  of  the  Moors  (Dung  Gate),  and  the 
Zion  Gate,  on  the  south.  There  are  also  five  closed  gates, 
viz :  Herod's  Gate  on  the  north ;  the  Golden  Gate  on  the 
1  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  464. 


176  The  Land  of  Israel 

east ;  and  the  Single,  Double,  and  Triple  Gates  on  the  south- 
ern wall  of  the  Temple  area. 

Quarters. — Two  of  the  principal  streets :  David  Street, 
running  eastward  from  the  Jaffa  Gate,  and  Damascus  Street, 
running  southward  from  the  Damascus  Gate,  traverse  the  city 
almost  at  right  angles  and  divide  it  into  four  unequal  sections 
or  quarters. 

The  southwest  section,  as  thus  divided,  is  known  as  the 
Armenian  quarter ;  the  northwest  as  the  Christian  ;  the  north- 
east as  the  Moslem;  and  the  southeast  (not  including  the 
Haram)  as  the  Jewish.  The  Haram,  or  Temple  area,  on 
Mount  Moriah,  which  contains  thirty-five  acres,  is  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  city  by  an  encircling  wall  of  great  strength. 

In  studying  the  places  and  objects  of  special  interest,  within 
the  city  walls,  it  will  be  convenient  to  make  use  of  these  divi- 
sions in  the  order  given. 

z.  The  Armenian  Quarter. — The  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  the  past  in  this  section  cluster  around  the  Citadel  (Al 
Kala),  which  occupies  the  northwest  corner,  directly  opposite 
the  Jaffa  Gate. 

"  It  consists  of  a  group  of  buildings  including  besides  soldiers'  quarters, 
the  saluting  battery  and  four  towers:  three  of  these  are  evidently  of 
modern  date,  though  they  may  stand  on  sites  of  more  ancient  towers. 
Their  masonry  is  composed  of  portions  of  arch  stones,  shafts  of  columns, 
etc.,  mixed  with  better  dressed  stones,  but  the  fourth,  known  as  the  Tower 
of  David  is  very  different.  It  is  an  oblong  building  sixty-eight  feet  long 
by  fifty-eight  feet  broad.  Its  construction  is  very  singular.  It  has  an 
escarp  of  masonry  sloping  to  a  ditch  ;  round  the  top  of  this  is  what  is 
known  as  a  berne  or  chemin  des  rondes  ;  upon  this  a  solid  mass  of  masonry, 
into  which  no  entrance  or  appearance  of  any  entrance  could  be  found : 
this  is  twenty-nine  feet  high.  Above  this  the  tower  is  built,  the  actual 
tower,  which  consists  of  several  chambers  and  a  cistern.  The  lower  part 
of  the  masonry  is  very  fine,  and  resembles  that  at  the  well-known  Wail- 
ing Place  in  its  dressing,  having,  however,  a  large  marginal  draft.  This 
tower  is  at  the  northeast  angle  of  the  citadel.  The  smaller  one  at  the 
northwest  angle  also  contains  a  cistern."  1 

'  Our  Work  in  Palestine,  p.  24. 


If  ./H 


.. 
$if/  • 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  177 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  these  towers  are  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  structures  which  Titus  left  standing  when  he 
destroyed  the  city.  The  one  at  the  northwest  angle  corre- 
sponds with  the  description  of  Hippicus,  which  Josephus  took 
for  his  starting  point  in  the  description  of  the  three  walls  that 
in  his  day  defended  the  city  from  invasion  on  the  north.  This 
tower  is  close  to  the  Jaffa  Gate.  It  is  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  dimensions  given  of  Hippicus  by  Josephus,  but  its  location 
accords  with  the  descriptions  and  incidental  references  in  other 
respects.  An  additional  proof  of  its  identification  with  Hip- 
picus has  been  furnished  by  the  discovery  of  an  aqueduct 
twelve  feet  below  the  level  of  the  present  conduit — probably 
that  by  which,  according  to  the  Jewish  historian,  water  was 
brought  into  that  building.  The  Tower  of  David  has  usually 
been  associated  with  Hippicus,  but  the  measurements  and  gen- 
eral descriptions  do  not  correspond  with  it.  The  dimensions 
of  Phasaelus  on  the  northeast  angle  agree  much  better  with 
these  descriptions.  It  is  larger ;  has  marks  of  greater  antiq- 
uity :  and  this  identification  has  now  the  sanction  of  the  best 
authorities.  This  structure  is  the  most  conspicuous  monument 
of  ancient  times  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  While  the  upper 
portion  has  evidently  been  restored,  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  the  lower  base,  or  substruction  belongs  to  the  time  of 
Herod.  A  location  so  important  as  a  strategic  point  must  al- 
ways have  been  occupied  by  a  defensive  work  of  some  kind  in 
every  period  of  the  history  of  Jerusalem. 

Miss  M.  E.  Rogers  makes  the  statement  that  thousands  of  skillfully 
fashioned  arrow  shafts  were  accidentally  discovered  beneath  the  roof  of 
one  of  the  upper  chambers  of  the  Tower  of  Hippicus,  nearly  fifty  years 
ago.  A  leakage  in  the  vaulted  roof  had  damaged  the  ceiling,  and  the 
arrows  were  exposed  to  view.  "  They  were  piled  up  by  hundreds  of 
thousands  in  this  spacious  loft,"  but  by  order  of  the  Governor  they  were 
again  walled  up  as  soon  as  the  damage  had  been  repaired.  A  few,  how- 
ever, were  carried  off  by  the  workmen,  one  of  which  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  Mr.  W.  G.  Rogers,  the  father  of  Miss  Rogers.  "  Experts 


ITS  The  Land  of  Israel 

pronounced  the  form  and  finish  of  this  arrow  shaft  to  be  quite  perfect,  but 
as  it  is  neither  barbed  nor  feathered,  it  is  the  more  difficult  to  determine 
its  age."  i 

Somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  the  citadel  stood  the  magnifi- 
cent Palace  of  Herod,  but  no  certain  trace  of  its  exact  location 
has  been  found. 

The  Armenian  Convent,  the  largest  modern  structure  in  Je- 
rusalem, with  its  extensive  grounds  and  quarters  for  pilgrims ; 
the  English  Church;  the  Church  of  St.  James,  next  in  size, 
and  costly  adornments  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ; 
and  some  very  attractive  gardens  cared  for  by  the  Armenian 
monks — are  included  in  this  quarter. 

2.  The  Christian  Quarter. — The  objects  of  special  in- 
terest in  this  division  are  the  Muristan,  ox  Hospital  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  covering  a  large  space  in  the  southeast 
angle ;  the  Pool  of  Hezekiah ;  the  Palace  and  Church  of  the 
Latin  Patriarch  ;  the  Greek  Monastery,  noted  for  its  ancient 
library  and  manuscripts ;  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre. 

The  Pool  of  Hezekiah  is  a  large  reservoir,  240  by  140 
feet.  Its  estimated  capacity  is  nearly  three  million  gallons. 
The  bottom  of  this  reservoir  is  the  natural  rock,  levelled  and 
cemented.  Houses  rise  above  its  enclosing  walls,  and  the 
water  is  reached  by  a  descent  of  several  steps.  The  pool  re- 
ceives its  water  supply  from  the  Birket  Mamilla,  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  through  an  underground  con- 
duit. The  reservoir  and  its  supply  pipe  are  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  "  pool  and  conduit  "  constructed  by  Heze- 
kiah to  bring  water  into  the  city.  (2  Kings  xx.  20.) 

The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  covers  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  crucifixion  and  burial  of  Christ.  It  is  in 
reality  a  collection  of  churches,  chapels  and  shrines,  grouped 
together  under  one  widely-extended  roof.  The  Chapel  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  is  a  small  marble  edifice  of  two  rooms  twenty- 
i  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  399. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  179 

six  feet  long  by  eighteen  wide  in  the  centre  of  the  rotunda  be- 
neath the  dome.  It  is  built  up  from  the  pavement  of  the 
church,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  small  crown  or  dome,  sup- 
ported by  sixteen  marble  columns.  In  the  inner  chamber  is 
the  so-called  tomb  of  Christ.  The  only  object  suggestive  of  a 
burial-place,  is  a  marble  slab,  raised  about  two  feet  above  the 
floor.  Here  for  nearly  sixteen  centuries,  devout  pilgrims,  from 
every  part  of  Christendom,  have  kneeled  to  kiss  this  cold  mar- 
ble slab  ;  and  yet  there  is  no  evidence,  in  sight  at  least,  of  even 
a  fragment  of  the  rock-hewn  tomb  which  the  Evangelists  have 
described.  If  the  real  tomb  where  the  Lord  had  lain  had  been 
identified  beyond  question  in  the  age  of  Constantine  it  would 
be  reasonable  to  infer  that  some  of  the  essential  features  of  its 
original  form  and  structure  would  still  be  preserved.  It  is 
scarcely  conceivable  that  a  spot  so  frequently  visited,  and  so 
carefully  guarded,  since  that  day  should  have  nothing  to  attest 
its  existence  but  an  artificial  representation  of  a  tomb  which 
does  not  accord  in  any  respect  with  the  scores  and  hundreds  of 
tombs  "  hewn  out  in  the  rock  "  on  every  side  of  the  Holy  City. 
Until  some  evidence  of  the  original  tomb  can  be  shown  which 
was  hewn  out  of  the  rock  under  the  direction  of  the  rich  man 
of  Arimathaea,  the  genuineness  of  the  site  will  certainly,  and 
with  good  reason,  be  called  in  question. 

In  another  section  of  the  church,  and  on  a  higher  elevation, 
reached  by  a  flight  of  twenty  stone  steps,  is  shown  the  place 
of  the  crucifixion.  A  large  number  of  traditional  sites, 
more  than  twenty  in  all,  associated  with  scriptural  incidents 
ranging  in  point  of  time  frcm  Adam  to  Christ  are  pointed  out 
in  various  nooks  and  corneU  Df  the  church  or  its  crypts. 

While  it  is  admitted  that  ic  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
is  the  successor  of  the  church  built  upon  this  site  by  Constan- 
tine A.  D.,  325,  and  that  it  has  been  revered  for  more  than 
fifteen  centuries  as  the  tomb  of  Christ,  most  of  the  leading 
authorities  at  the  present  time  have  accepted  the  conclusion 
reached  by  Dr.  Robinson  many  years  ago  "  that  its  genuine- 


180 


The  Land  of  Israel 


ness  is  supported  neither  by  well  authenticated  historical  facts, 
nor  by  prior  traditions,  nor  by  archaeological  features."  Its 
position  in  the  midst  of  the  modern  city ;  the  impossibility  of 
placing  it  outside  the  line  of  the  second  wall,  except  on  the 
theory  of  a  reentering  angle ;  its  close  proximity  to  the  Pool  of 
Hezekiah,  which  must  always  have  been  within  the  walls  ;  and 
the  unsatisfactory,  not  to  say  damaging,  evidence  furnished  by 
the  number  and  surroundings  of  the  traditional  sites  themselves 
— all  bear  heavily  against  the  supposition  that  this  was  the 
place  of  the  crucifixion  and  entombment  of  Christ.  To  place 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  without  the  wall  of  Herod's 
time,  with  such  knowledge  as  we  now  possess  of  its  direction 
and  bearings,  would  give  to  that  portion  of  the  city,  as  Dr. 
Thomson  expresses  it,  "a  configuration  quite  preposterous,  and 
so  contract  the  area  included  between  the  second  wall  and  the 
old  first  wall  as  to  make  it  scarcely  worth  while  to  erect  it  at 
all."  To  this  may  be  added  the  statement  of  Major  Conder 
that  the  recovery  of  the  rock  sections  shows  the  improbability 
of  so  drawing  the  second  wall  as  to  exclude  the  Church. 

This  venerated  shrine,  however  we  may  regard  its  traditional 
claims,  has  a  history,  strangely  inconsistent  with  the  character 
of  Him  who  died  on  Calvary :  and  yet  one  of  surpassing  in- 
terest. No  other  rood  of  ground,  not  even  Mecca  itself,  has 
drawn  together  so  many  pilgrim  bands  from  afar,  or  has  cost 
so  much  in  blood  and  treasure.  Its  recovery  from  the  hands 
of  the  Infidel  was  the  dominant  thought  of  Christian  Europe 
for  more  than  two  centuries,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  several 
Crusades  organized  to  accomplish  this  object,  cost  from  six  to 
ten  million  human  lives. 

More  wonderful  than  all  else  were  the  errors  overruled,  and 
the  transformations  indirectly  brought  about  in  Christendom, 
by  the  attempt  to  recover  this  empty  tomb. 

3.  The  Moslem  Quarter. — This  is  the  largest  division 
of  the  city.  It  contains  the  Governor's  Palace ;  the  soldiers' 
barracks ;  the  consulates  of  several  nationalities ;  the  Church  of 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  181 

St.  Anne ;  the  Pool  of  Bethesda ;  and  the  so-called  Via  Dolo- 
rosa.  The  Church  of  St.  Anne  occupies  a  prominent  position 
in  this  quarter.  Its  location  is  a  few  yards  north  of  the  street 
which  leads  to  St.  Stephen's  Gate.  This  church  with  its  ex- 
tensive grounds  was  given  to  Napoleon  III.,  by  the  reigning 
Sultan  after  the  Crimean  war. 

The  Pool  of  Bethesda. — This  has  been  identified  with  an 
ancient  reservoir,  which  was  excavated  in  1888,  about  one 
hundred  feet  northwest  of  the  Church  of  St.  Anne.  It 
measures  fifty-five  by  twelve  and  a  half  feet  and  was  cut  into 
the  rock  for  a  depth  of  thirty  feet.  A  flight  of  twenty-four 
steps  leads  down  to  the  east  end  of  the  basin.  The  pool  has 
five  supporting  arches  with  five  corresponding  porches,  run- 
ning along  the  side.  A  twin  pool  was  found  soon  after  six  feet 
away,  lying  end  to  end,  and  measuring  sixty  feet  in  length. 

This  double  pool  corresponds  with  the  description  of  Be- 
thesda given  by  Eusebius,  and  by  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim  in  333 
A.  D. 

"  At  a  later  period  a  church  was  built  over  the  pool  by  the  Crusaders, 
and  they  seem  to  have  been  so  far  impressed  by  the  fact  of  five  arches 
below  that  they  shaped  their  crypt  in  five  arches  in  imitation.  They  left 
an  opening  for  getting  down  to  the  water ;  and  further,  as  the  crowning 
proof  that  they  regarded  the  pool  as  Bethesda,  they  painted  on  the  wall  of 
the  crypt  a  fresco  representing  the  angel  troubling  the  water  of  the 
pool."  * 

In  the  bed  of  the  ravine  or  fosse,  which  may  be  traced  in 
part  along  the  outside  of  the  north  wall  of  the  Haram,  is  a 
large  reservoir  (Birket  Israil)  360  x  126  x  75  feet. 

This  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Pool  of 
Bethesda,  but,  as  Dr.  Robinson  suggests,  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
the  remains  of  the  deep  trench  referred  to  by  Josephus,  which 
separated  the  north  Temple  wall  from  Bezetha. 

The   traditional   Via   Dolorosa   runs   from   the   Governor's 

1  Buried  Cities  and  Bible  Countries,  p.  327.  See  also  Pal.  Quarterly, 
July,  1888,  and  January,  1891,  for  plans  and  fuller  description. 


182 


The  Land  of  Israel 


Palace,  which  occupies  a  portion  of  the  site  of  the  tower  of 
Antonia,  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  It  has  nothing 
in  common  with  the  city  of  Herod,  and  its  stations  and  general 
direction  through  the  city  are  merely  creations  of  fancy. 

The  Royal  Quarries  or  Cotton  Grotto. — The  extensive 
excavations  designated  by  one  or  other  of  the  foregoing  names, 
were  made  underneath  the  rock  surface  of  the  northern  portion 
of  this  quarter.  From  the  entrance,  near  the  Damascus  Gate, 
the  floor  slopes  gradually  toward  the  south.  In  this  direction 
the  cavern  extends  for  a  distance  of  about  700  feet.  In 
breadth  it  varies  from  sixty  to  300  feet.  The  roof  which 
averages  about  thirty  feet  in  height,  is  supported  by  large  pil- 
lars of  native  rock. 

The  material  is  a  soft  white  limestone,  which  hardens  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  The  extent  of  the  quarry  indicates  that  an 
enormous  amount  of  this  stone  was  required  for  some  purpose 
connected  with  the  great  structures  of  the  city.  That  this  was 
a  mammoth  workshop,  as  well  as  a  quarry,  is  evident  from  the 
great  blocks  detached  and  partly-dressed  blocks,  and  the  heaps 
of  stone  chippings  which  everywhere  litter  the  floor. 

"In  many  places,"  says  Sir  Charles  Wilson,  "  the  stones 
have  been  left  half  cut  out,  and  the  marks  of  the  chisel  and 
pick  are  as  fresh  as  if  the  quarrymen  had  only  left  their  work : 
even  the  black  patches  made  by  the  smoke  of  the  lamps  are 
still  visible." 

There  is  no  improbability  in  the  supposition  that  the  great 
stones  used  in  the  substructions  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  and 
in  its  surrounding  walls,  were  obtained  from  this  quarry  and 
fitted  for  their  places  in  this  underground  workshop.  It  was  the 
probable  source  of  supply  also  for  the  reconstructions  of  Herod. 

North  of  this  grotto  are  similar  excavations  on  a  smaller 
scale,  in  the  hillside,  which  are  known  as  Jeremiah's  grotto. 
These  excavations  were  probably  separated  from  the  southern 
portion  by  the  cuttings  made  for  the  foundation  of  the  present 
wall. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  183 

With  respect  to  the  geological  formation  of  the  plateau  on 
which  the  city  stands,  Sir  Charles  Wilson  says : 

"  The  upper  strata  are  beds  of  a  hard  reddish  and  grey  stone  called  Misseht 
the  lower  of  a  soft,  easily  worked  stone  known  as  Melekeh.  The  latter  bed, 
which  is  some  thirty-five  feet  thick,  underlies  the  whole  city.  All  the 
great  subterranean  reservoirs,  nearly  all  the  tombs,  the  Siloam  aqueduct, 
and  the  caverns  at  Siloam  have  been  hewn  out  of  it,  and  the  great  quar- 
ries near  the  Damascus  Gate  show  that  it  was  largely  used  for  building 
purposes.  The  Misseh  beds  have,  however,  yielded  the  best  and  most 
durable  building  material,  and  the  stones  from  these  beds  can  be  easily 
recognized  in  the  walls  by  their  sharp  edges  and  superior  state  of  preser- 
vation." * 

4.  The  Jewish  Quarter. — This  division  contains  several 
Synagogues,  but  has  no  imposing  buildings,  such  as  adorn  the 
other  quarters  of  the  city.     Its  streets  are  dark,  narrow  and 
untidy;    its  houses  are  closely  joined,  dilapidated  tenement 
buildings ;  and  its  inhabitants  for  the  most  part  live  in  abject 
poverty.     Ruins  heaped  upon  ruins  are  the  chief  character^ 
istics  of  this  densely  populated  district. 

The  Wailing  Place  on  its  eastern  boundary  is  the  only 
part  of  the  Holy  City  to  which  the  Jews  have  free  access. 
Here  they  assemble  day  after  day,  and  especially  on  Fridays, 
to  bewail  their  fallen  estate  and  weep  over  the  desolations  of 
Zion.  Here  may  be  seen  men  and  women  standing  by  the 
wall  putting  their  fingers  into  its  clefts,  kissing  the  great  stones, 
or  sitting  on  the  ground  and  swaying  back  and  forth  as  they 
intone  the  lamentations  of  the  prophets  of  Judah.  This  portion 
of  the  Haram  wall  is  155  feet  in  length  and  fifty-five  in  height. 
Nine  of  the  lowest  courses  are  built  of  huge  blocks  of  stone. 
One  stone  measures  sixteen  feet  in  length  and  another  thirteen 
feet. 

5.  The    Temple    Area. — This   sacred    enclosure,    now 
called  the  Haram  esh  Sherif,  or  "  Place  of  the  Noble  Sanctu- 
ary," is  an  irregular  quadrangle  of  nearly  thirty-five  acres  m 
area. 

1  The  City  and  The  Land,  p.  8. 


184: 


The  Land  of  Israel 


"  It  has  been  formed  by  cutting  the  rock  away  in  some  places,  by  build- 
ing supporting  vaults  in  others,  and  by  filling  in  hollows  with  large  stones 
and  rubbish.  The  dimensions  are — north  side  1,042  feet;  east  side 
1,530;  south  side  922;  and  west  side  1,601."  J 

Those  who  enter  this  secluded  spot,  in  which,  beyond  all 
question,  once  stood  the  Temple  of  Solomon  and  its  successors, 
pass  in  a  moment  from  the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  crowded 
streets  into  a  charming  retreat,  where  no  lurking  intruder  is 
found ;  and  where  eternal  quiet  seems  to  reign.  Except  the 
raised  platform  near  the  centre,  which  covers  an  area  of  five 
acres  and  is  paved  with  smooth  slabs  of  limestone,  the  surface 
of  the  Haram  is  a  beautiful  greensward  spangled  with  flowers, 
and  dotted  here  and  there  with  Cyprus  or  olive  trees. 

The  Dome  of  the  Rock  (Kubbet  es  Sakhra)  "next  after 
Mecca  the  most  sacred  building  in  Moslem  lands,"  and  next 
after  Cordova  the  most  beautiful  in  any  land, — occupies  the 
centre  of  the  platform.  It  is  an  octagonal  building,  sheathed 
with  richly  colored  marbles  and  encaustic  tiles,  surmounted  by 
an  exquisitely  proportioned  dome.  "  From  whatever  point  that 
graceful  dome  with  its  beautiful  precinct  emerges  to  view,  it  at 
once  dignifies  the  whole  city.  And  when  from  Olivet,  or  from 
the  Governor's  house,  or  from  the  northeast  wall,  you  see  the 
platform  on  which  it  stands,  it  is  a  scene  hardly  to  be  sur- 
passed."2 The  interior  with  its  wonderful  variety  of  archi- 
tectural combinations  and  groupings ;  its  rich  decorations  in 
stained  glass,  marble  and  mosaic ;  and  its  lavish  profusion  of 
gilt  tracery  and  inscriptions, — is  indeed  "  a  sumptuous  build- 
ing," well  worthy  of  a  visit  for  its  own  sake.  But  the  object  of 
special  interest,  which  has  given  to  it  a  name  and  world-wide 
fame,  is  the  great  rock,  surrounded  by  an  inner  row  of  columns, 
which  rises  several  feet  above  its  pavement,  directly  under  the 
Celling  dome.  This  rock,  known  as  the  Sakhra,  measures 
fifty-six  feet  from  north  to  south  and  forty-two  from  east  to 
west.  Its  elevation  above  the  floor  is  four  feet  nine  and  one- 


»Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  P.  52. 


8  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  235. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  185 

half  inches  at  the  highest  point,  and  one  foot  at  the  lowest.  If 
the  platform  were  removed  on  which  the  building  rests,  this 
ledge  of  rock  would  stand  fifteen  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Temple  area.  It  is  unquestionably  the  summit  of  Mount  Moriah 
and  must  have  had  an  important  place  in  the  construction  of 
the  Holy  House,  which  crowned  this  mountain  and  extended 
its  courts,  corridors  and  retaining  walls  adown  its  rugged  sides. 
On  the  Sakhra  itself  there  are  chisel  marks  and  scarping  which 
indicate  that  a  framework  of  some  sort  had  been  carefully  fitted 
around  it. 

"  The  surface  of  the  rock,"  says  Colonel  Wilson,  of  the  Ordnance  Survey, 
"  bears  the  marks  of  hard  treatment  and  rough  chiselling,  on  the  western 
side  it  is  cut  down  to  three  steps,  and  on  the  north  side  in  an  irregular 
shape,  the  object  of  which  cannot  now  be  discovered." 

Some  authorities  have  assumed  that  the  floor  of  the  Temple 
overlaid  the  Sakhra,  with  possibly  a  projecting  portion  uprising 
amid  the  Holy  of  Holies,  while  others  regard  it  as  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  brazen  Altar. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  stands  on 
the  site  of  the  Sanctuary  or  Holy  House  of  both  temples.  It  is 
scarcely  possible,  therefore,  to  conceive  of  any  position  which 
this  huge  bulk  of  rock  could  occupy  except  that  of  a  central 
mass  or  core,  around  which  the  mighty  structure  grew.  Be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  Sakhra,  at  its  east  end,  there  is  an  arti- 
ficial cave  with  a  superficial  area  of  nearly  600  feet,  and  an 
average  height  of  six  feet.  Its  floor  is  reached  by  a  flight  of 
steps  which  pass  under  an  archway,  but  originally  it  was  a 
cistern  or  close  chamber,  whose  only  opening  was  through  an 
aperture,  now  utilized  as  a  window,  in  the  roof.  In  the  centre 
of  the  floor  is  a  circular  slab  of  marble,  which  gives  forth  a 
hollow  sound  when  tapped. 

The  underground  shaft  or  chamber  with  which  it  evidently 
communicates  is  called  by  the  Arabs  the  "  Well  of  Spirits." 

Says  Canon  Tristram : 

"  It  is  possible  that  this  cave  was  the  receptacle  for  the  offal  of  the  sac- 


186  The  Land  of  Israel 

rifice  and  connected  with  the  water  supply  which  was  so  arranged  as  to 
carry  off  underground  all  the  refuse  of  the  daily  sacrifices  without  its  be- 
ing seen ;  this  we  learn  from  the  rabbinical  commentaries."  The  same 
author  assumes  that  "  Araunah's  threshing  floor  must  have  been  close  to 
the  central  Dome  of  the  Rock,  because  threshing  floors  in  the  east  are  in- 
variably placed  on  the  ridges  of  hills  and  in  the  most  exposed  positions, 
in  order  that  the  corn  and  chaff  may  catch  any  breath  of  wind  when  they 
are  thrown  up  into  the  air  by  the  shovel." 

On  this  supposition  the  cave,  which  may  have  been  used  as 
a  place  of  storage  for  the  grain,  would  be  the  most  likely  hiding- 
place  for  Araunah  (Oman)  and  his  sons,  when  the  Angel  of 
the  Lord  suddenly  appeared  by  the  threshing  floor,  (i  Chron. 
xxi.  20;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  18-20.)  However  this  may  be,  it  is 
definitely  stated  (2  Chron.  iii.  i)  that  "  Solomon  began  to 
build  the  house  of  the  Lord  at  Jerusalem  in  Mount  Moriah, 
where  the  Lord  appeared  unto  David,  his  father,  in  the  place 
that  David  had  prepared  in  the  threshing  floor  of  Oman  the 
Jebusite." 

On  the  central  platform  several  buildings  fashioned  in  ex- 
cellent taste,  but  of  smaller  proportions,  are  grouped  around  the 
Dome  of  the  Rock. 

South  of  the  platform  is  the  Great  Mosque  of  El  Aksa  and 
its  associated  buildings.  This  pile  extends  to  the  outer  wall  of 
the  Haram  and  covers  a  space  of  272  feet  long  by  184  wide. 
The  original  structure  was  probably  a  Christian  Church  built 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian.  "  Taking  it  in  mass  and  detail," 
says  Hep  worth  Dixon,  "  this  group  on  the  Temple  hill — the 
Mosques  of  Omar  and  El  Aksa,  the  domes,  the  terraces,  the 
colonnades,  the  kiosks  and  fountains — is  perhaps  the  very 
noblest  specimen  of  building  art  in  Asia." 

The  water  supply  of  the  Temple  area  was  provided  for 
by  a  vast  system  of  conduits  and  reservoirs  that  literally  honey- 
combed the  underlying  rock.  More  than  thirty  of  these 
reservoirs  were  examined,  measured,  and  marked  on  the  chart, 
by  Warren  and  his  party.  One  cistern  of  this  series  in  front 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  187 

of  the  Mosque  of  El  Aksa,  known  as  the  "  Great  Sea,"  has  a 
capacity  of  2,000,000  gallons.  Sir  Charles  Wilson  estimates 
that  the  total  number  of  gallons  which  could  be  stored  in  these 
reservoirs  would  probably  exceed  12,000,000.  Solomon's 
Pools  were  the  principal  source  of  supply  from  without  the 
city. 

Walls  of  the  Temple  Area. — The  northern  boundary  of 
the  Haram  for  a  distance  of  350  feet  from  the  northwest  corner 
was  a  mass  of  rock  thirty  feet  high  and  about  100  feet  thick. 
It  was  scarped  on  the  outside  and  protected  in  front  by  the 
ravine  which  separates  Moriah  from  the  hill  of  Bezetha.  This 
ledge,  on  which  the  Turkish  Barrack  now  stands,  was  the 
probable  site  of  the  great  quadrangular  fortress  of  Antonia  (or 
Baras),  the  chief  defence  of  the  Temple  on  the  side  of  its  great- 
est exposure. 

The  towers  of  this  stronghold  rose  to  a  great  height  and 
overlooked  the  courts  of  the  Temple.  It  was  connected  with 
its  cloisters  in  the  time  of  Herod  by  secret  passages  through 
which  soldiers  might  be  hurried  in  case  of  need.  It  is  probable 
that  the  chief  captain,  who  rescued  Paul  from  mob  violence, 
led  his  band  of  soldiers  through  one  of  these  underground 
passages.  (Acts  xxi.  31-33.)  On  the  stairway  which  led  up 
to  the  castle  the  Apostle  made  the  noble  defence  recorded  in  the 
twenty-second  chapter  of  Acts.  From  this  citadel  also,  in  all 
probability,  Jesus  was  led  away  by  a  band  of  Roman  soldiers  to 
the  place  of  crucifixion.  (Matt,  xxvii.  27-31.) 

Farther  to  the  east  on  the  line  of  the  depression  between  the 
two  hills  is  the  basin  or  reservoir  known  as  Birket  Israil.  It  is 
360  feet  long,  126  feet  wide,  and  eighty  feet  deep.  This 
ravine,  which  originally  entered  the  Kedron  valley  to  the  south 
of  the  northeast  angle,  is  only  a  shallow  depression  in  some 
places  at  the  present  time,  but  excavations  have  shown  that  its 
bed,  at  a  point  near  the  angle,  is  actually  142  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Temple  area,  or  125  below  the  outside  surface. 
This  is  the  greatest  accumulation  of  debris  which  has  been 


188 


The  Land  of  Israel 


found  in  or  about  the  Holy  City.  No  other  part  of  the  wall 
has  been  so  often  demolished  or  thrown  down.  As  we  now 
see  it  the  wall  which  crosses  the  bed  of  this  old  valley  is  about 
forty-five  feet  high  outside,  but  if  we  could  clear  it  of  these  vast 
accumulations  down  to  its  rock  foundation  it  would  rise  before 
us  to  the  height  of  more  than  150  feet.  On  some  of  the  great 
stones  of  this  wall  masons'  marks  in  red  paint  have  been  found 
at  a  depth  of  100  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  These 
have  been  identified  as  Phoenician  characters  by  the  best 
authorities ;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  trickling  of  the  paint  is 
upward  in  some  instances  it  is  evident  that  the  marks  were  put 
on  by  workmen  in  the  quarry,  or  that  the  stones  belonged  to  an 
earlier  wall  and  were  built  in  upside  down.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  these  characters  correspond  with  masons'  marks  found 
on  the  substructions  of  the  harbor  of  Sidon.  Similar  marks 
were  also  found  on  the  foundation  stones  at  the  southeast 
corner.  "Some  of  these  graphiti,"  says  Mr.  Deutsch,  of  the 
British  Museum,  "were  recognizable  at  once  as  well-known 
Phoenician  characters ;  others,  hitherto  unknown  in  Phoenician 
epigraphy,  I  had  the  rare  satisfaction  of  being  able  to  identify 
on  absolutely  undoubted  Phoenician  structures  in  Syria."  l 

The  Golden  Gate  is  373  feet  south  of  the  northeast  angle. 
It  occupies  the  middle  of  a  prominent  projection  which  extends 
for  some  distance  beyond  the  line  of  the  wall.  It  has  a  double 
portal  with  semi-circular  arches.  Authorities  differ  with  respect 
to  the  date  of  its  construction.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  it 
belongs  to  the  later  Roman  period.  A  shaft  was  sunk  by  the 
engineers  of  Warren's  party  143  feet  from  the  south  end  of  the 
Golden  Gateway,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  drive  a  tunnel 
from  it  to  the  wal).  This  was  found  to  be  impracticable,  be- 
cause of  a  massive  wall  intervening,  which  was  supposed  to  be 
a  retaining  wall  of  a  terrace.  "It  was  concluded,  though  not 
with  perfect  certainty,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  other 
reasons,  that  the  Golden  Gateway  stands  from  thirty  to  forty 
»  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  47. 


THE   SOUTHEAST   ANGLE   OF   HARAM   WALL 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  189 

feet  above  the  rock.  The  very  dangerous  nature  of  the  rubbish 
obliged  Captain  Warren  to  close  up  the  shaft."  * 

The  masonry  from  this  gate  to  the  northeast  corner  was 
found  to  be  of  a  rougher  sort  than  that  to  the  south  of  it,  in- 
dicating a  later  construction  or  reconstruction. 

The  Southeast  Corner. — At  this  angle  the  wall  rises  to 
the  height  of  seventy  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It 
is  the  most  imposing  mass  of  solid  masonry  in  or  about  the 
modern  city :  and  yet  the  greater  part  of  this  wall  lies  buried 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Its  foundations  have  been 
discovered  at  a  depth  of  over  eighty  feet,  and  hence  the  wall  as 
it  stands  is  not  less  than  150  feet  high.  "  The  masonry  here  is 
about  the  best  in  all  the  walls,  and  some  of  the  stones  are  very 
great.  (Mark  xiii.  i.)  One  at  the  angle,  a  good  way  above 
the  present  surface  is  twenty-six  feet  long,  and  over  six  feet 
high  by  seven  feet  broad.  It  must  weigh  over  100  tons.  It  is 
said  to  be  the  heaviest  though  not  the  longest  in  the  walls."  2 
At  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  which  was  sunk  at  this  angle  by 
Colonel  Warren,  an  accumulation  of  "fat  mould  filled  with  pot- 
sherds "  was  found.  "  This  was  the  layer  of  earth  on  the  rock, 
and  is,  perhaps,  the  actual  layer  found  by  Solomon  when  he 
began  his  work  of  building.  Close  to  the  wall  it  was  cut  away, 
gradually  closing  into  it.  This,  of  course,  was  to  allow  the 
stones  to  be  lowered  into  their  position."  3  There  were  no 
signs  of  stone  dressing  anywhere  in  this  vicinity.  This  nega- 
tive proof,  coupled  with  the  evidence  furnished  by  the  quarry- 
men's  marks,  on  the  lower  courses  of  the  wall,  make  it  clear 
that  these  great  blocks  were  fashioned  elsewhere  and  made 
ready  to  be  lowered  into  their  places  without  the  use  of  "  ham- 
mer or  axe  or  tool  of  iron."  (i  Kings  vi.  7.) 

Three  feet  east  of  the  angle  a  small  earthen  jar  was  found  in 
a  recess  cut  out  of  the  rock.  "  It  was  standing  upright  as 
though  it  had  been  purposely  placed  there."  Broken  pottery, 

i  Thirty  years'  Work,  p.  127.  «  Henderson's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  143. 

3  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  121. 


190 


The  Land  of  Israel 


a  rusty  nail,  some  charred  wood,  and  several  jar  handles  were 
also  found  in  the  red  earth  which  had  accumulated  around  the 
foundation  course. 

The  southeast  corner  of  the  Haram  is  supported  by  a  series 
of  substructions  or  vaulted  crypts,  called  Solomon's  Stables. 
They  are  regarded  as  a  comparatively  modern  reconstruction. 
The  evident  purpose  of  their  original  construction  was  the  en- 
largement of  the  Temple  area. 

"  They  consist  of  semi-circular  vaults  about  twenty-eight  feet  high,  rest- 
ing on  a  hundred  square  piers,  chiefly  composed  of  ancient  drafted  stones. 
In  the  middle  ages  the  stables  of  the  Frank  kings  and  of  the  Templars 
were  here,  and  the  rings  to  which  they  attached  their  horses  still  exist. 
The  vaults  extend  ninety-one  yards  from  east  to  west,  and  sixty-six  yards 
from  south  to  north.  There  are  altogether  thirteen  vaults  of  unequal 
length  and  breadth.  The  arches,  in  the  shape  of  a  rather  elongated  semi- 
circle, are  borne  by  eighty-eight  columns  in  twelve  parallel  rows."  l 

There  are  three  closed  gates  in  the  face  of  the  south  wall, 
which  divide  it  into  three  nearly  equal  portions,  viz :  the 
Single,  Triple  and  Double,  or  Huldah,  Gates. 

The  following  description,  (somewhat  condensed,)  of  these 
noted  portals  is  given  by  Sir  Charles  Wilson : 

The  Single  Gate,  the  nearest  of  the  three  to  the  southeast  angle  is  a 
closed  entrance  of  comparatively  modern  date,  which  at  one  time  led 
directly  into  the  vaults  known  as  Solomon's  Stables.  Beneath  the  gate 
Captain  Warren  found  the  Great  Passage,  a  narrow  way  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  feet  high  and  sixty-nine  feet  long,  which  lies  beneath  one  of  the 
aisles  of  Solomon's  Stables. 

Next  in  order  is  the  Triple  Gate,  which  consists  of  three  arched  portals 
each  thirteen  feet  wide.  The  openings  are  closed  with  small  masonry, 
but  they  formerly  gave  access  to  three  parallel  passages,  which  after  run- 
ning some  distance  beneath  the  surface  of  the  Haram  are  blocked  with 
rubbish. 

The  Double  Gate  consists  of  two  entrances,  which  formerly  opened  into 
a  vestibule,  whence  there  was  an  ascent  to  the  Haram  area  by  a  vaulted 
passage  at  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  wall.  The  gates  are  each 

»  Baedecker,  p.  52. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs 

eighteen  feet  wide,  and  they  are  covered  with  large  lintels,  which  have 
been  cracked  by  the  pressure  of  the  masonry  above,  and  are  now  sup- 
ported by  columns.  The  Double  Gate  is  undoubtedly  a  relic  of  the 
Temple  of  Herod.  Close  to  the  eastern  lintel  is  a  dedicatory  inscription 
to  Hadrian,  built  into  the  wall  upside  down,  which  some  writers  suppose 
belonged  to  the  statue  erected  to  that  emperor  in  the  Temple  area.  l 

The  vaulted  passage  and  vestibule  alluded  to  in  the  above 
description,  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps  from  the  inside 
of  the  Haram,  near  the  entrance  to  the  Mosque  El  Aksa.  The 
vestibule  is  a  large  four  domed  crypt  (thirty  by  forty  feet,)  the 
sides  of  which  are  constructed  of  immense  blocks  of  stone.  In 
the  centre  is  a  supporting  column — a  monolith  of  hard  lime- 
stone— eighteen  feet  in  girth  and  twenty-one  feet  high.  Its 
capital  has  a  beautiful  decoration  consisting  of  alternate  leaves 
of  the  acanthus  and  water  lily.  There  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  Double  Gate  is  identical  with  the  Huldah  Gate, 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  and,  if  so,  it  is  probable  that  Jesus 
frequently  entered  the  cloisters  by  the  Temple  of  this  passage- 
way. It  is  possible  that  the  double  vaults  beyond  the  vestibule 
have  been  changed  in  appearance  or  direction,  but  the  vestibule 
itself  is  certainly  as  old  as  the  gateway. 

Colonel  Warren  found  a  marked  difference  in  the  structure 
and  general  appearance  of  the  portion  of  the  south  wall  which 
lies  west  of  the  Double  Gate.  He  accounts  for  this  on  the  sup- 
position that  Herod  added  this  western  part  as  a  retaining  wall 
in  order  that  he  might  level  up  the  southwest  corner,  and  thus 
secure  the  space  he  desired  for  the  enlargement  of  the  Temple 
Courts.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  in  this  connection,  that  the 
course  of  great  stones,  which  runs  continuously  from  the  east 
angle,  ends  at  the  Double  Gate.  The  longest  stone  above 
ground  in  the  Haram  wall  is  at  the  southwest  angle.  It  meas- 
ures thirty-eight  feet  nine  inches  in  length. 

Robinson's  Arch. — On  the  west  wall,  thirty-nine  feet  from 
the  southwest  angle,  Doctor  Robinson  discovered  some  project- 

i  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol  I.,  p.  49. 


192  The  Land  of  Israel 

ing  stones  measuring  fifty-one  feet  in  width  which  suggested 
the  spring  of  an  ancient  arch.  His  inference  that  this  was  one 
of  a  series  of  arches  supported  by  piers,  belonging  to  a  bridge 
or  viaduct,  which  spanned  the  Tyropoeon  valley,  was  confirmed 
by  the  discovery  of  the  first  pier  at  the  distance  indicated  by 
the  fragment  of  the  arch.  It  rested  on  a  pavement  more  than 
thirty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  with  it  were 
found  nearly  three  courses  of  the  masonry  of  the  arch.  Below 
this  pavement,  at  a  distance  of  twenty-four  feet,  an  ancient 
aqueduct  was  unearthed,  twelve  feet  deep  and  four  feet  wide. 
Above  it,  and  sticking  fast  in  its  vaulted  roof,  were  two  arch 
stones  of  an  older  bridge. 

The  bottom  of  this  drain  was  found  to  be  107  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  bridge  which  belonged  to  Robinson's  Arch.  In 
reference  to  this  discovery  Colonel  Warren  says : 

If  we  are  to  suppose  that  the  roughly-faced  stones  at  the  southwest  an- 
gle were  never  exposed  to  view,  we  must  presume,  also,  that  the  two  ap- 
parent voussoirs  (arch  stones)  lying  on  the  aqueduct  under  Robinson's 
Arch,  belonged  to  a  bridge  which  crossed  the  Tyropoeon  valley  previous 
to  the  building  of  the  southwest  angle  of  the  Sanctuary.  This,  says  Dr. 
Thomson,  would  seem  to  imply  that  there  was  a  bridge  lower  and  more 
ancient  than  Robinson's  Arch ;  and  if  the  latter  was  constructed  by 
Herod,  the  former  could  not  have  been  of  a  later  date  than  that  of  the 
restored  Temple  of  Nehemiah,  or  even  the  Temple  of  Solomon  itself.1 

It  is  probable  that  these  remains  represent  the  bridge  over 
the  Tyropoeon  on  which,  according  to  Josephus,  Titus  stood  and 
held  parley  with  the  Jews.  (Wars  i,  vii.  2.) 

Barclay's  Gate,  or  the  Prophets'  Gate  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  a  closed  portal  270  feet  from  the  southwest  angle. 
"  This  gateway,  which  is  evidently  one  of  those  that  Josephus 
describes  as  leading  from  the  western  cloisters  of  the  Temple  to 
the  suburb  of  the  city,  is  partly  concealed  by  rubbish ;  but  ex- 
cavations have  shown  that  it  was  about  eighteen  feet  ten  inches 
wide,  and  twenty-eight  feet  nine  inches  high.  The  lintel  of 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  515. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  193 

the  gate  is  one  enormous  stone,  and  its  sill  is  no  less  than  forty- 
nine  feet  nine  inches  above  the  rock.  The  gateway  formerly 
gave  access  to  a  vaulted  passage,  one  of  the  approaches  to 
Herod's  Temple,  which  ran  for  sixty-nine  feet  in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  the  wall,  to  a  domed  chamber  or  vestibule,  and 
then,  turning  at  right  angles  to  the  south,  gained  the  Temple 
area  by  a  ramp  or  flight  of  steps."  l  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  both  of  these  ancient  passage-ways  were  discovered 
by  American  explorers. 

Wilson's  Arch,  named  after  its  illustrious  discoverer  Sir 
Charles  Wilson,  is  a  subterranean  structure  under  the  gate  of  the 
Chain,  600  feet  from  the  southwest  angle.  Dr.  Thomson  de- 
scribes it  as  follows : 

The  arch  springs  from  the  foundation  wall  of  the  Haram,  as  does  also 
that  of  Robinson's  Arch,  and  the  stones  are  similar  to  it  in  shape  and  size. 
It  is  semicircular  and  perfect,  composed  of  twenty-five  courses,  or  tiers, 
twelve  on  each  side  of  the  keystone,  and  is,  in  a  word,  Robinson's  Arch 
— rather,  one  similar  to  it  completed — and  the  perfection  of  the  work 
strikes  the  beholder  with  admiration  and  wonder.  This  arch  is  by  far  the 
most  impressive  specimen  of  Roman  architecture  yet  discovered  about 
Jerusalem.  Major  Wilson  believes  that  there  never  was  more  than  one 
arch  at  that  place,  the  remainder  of  the  Tyropceon  valley  westward  hav- 
ing been  filled  up  by  a  solid  causeway ;  but  Warren's  excavations  have 
since  shown  that  there  was  a  series  of  arches  forming  a  viaduct  which 
lead  up  toward  the  palace  of  Herod  on  the  western  hill.2 

The  Wailing  Place  of  the  Jews,  already  described,  lies  be- 
tween Wilson's  Arch  and  Barclay's  Gate. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  the  study  of  the  Temple  area 
by  Sir  Charles  Warren  in  view  of  all  these  discoveries,  are  "  that 
the  oldest  portion  of  the  wall  is  the  southeast  part  and  the  south 
as  far  as  the  Double  Gate ;  that  Solomon's  palace  stood  in  the 
southeast,  and  that  the  southwest  was  built  by  Herod ;  and  that 
the  Temple  stood  in  the  middle ;  where,  in  fact,  Jewish,  Chris- 

1  Pict.  Pal.,  p.  40,  Art.  by  Col.  Wilson. 
8  Land  and  Book,  p.  5 16. 


194:  The  Land  of  Israel 

tian  and  Mohammedan  tradition  all  unite  in  placing  it."  l  In 
his  official  report  Warren  gives  it  as  his  conviction  also,  that 
the  portions  of  the  Haram  wall  from  Wilson's  Arch  to  Barclay's 
Gate :  and  from  the  Double  Gate  round  by  the  southeast  angle 
are  Solomonic  :  while  the  wall  at  the  northeast  angle  ' '  is  pre- 
sumably the  work  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,  the  old  wall  to  which 
Joseph  us  tells  us  the  wall  of  Agrippa  was  joined." 

It  should  be  noted  in  connection  with  this  study  of  the  Tem- 
ple Hill  that  the  wall  we  have  been  tracing  is  only  the  wall  of 
the  Temple  enclosure,  and  not  of  the  Sanctuary  itself.  Of  this, 
as  Christ  had  foretold,  there  was  not  left  one  stone  upon  another 
that  was  not  thrown  down.  (Matt.  xxiv.  i,  2.)  In  conse- 
quence of  this  total  destruction  its  exact  site  is  in  controversy 
to-day.  The  entrances  to  which  reference  has  been  made  were 
passage-ways  to  the  cloisters  or  outer  courts  only.  The  real 
gates  of  the  Temple  admitted  to  inside  enclosures  on  higher 
levels. 

The  general  plans  of  the  first  and  second  Temples  were  the 
same.  The  principal  divergence  in  structure,  extent  and  ap- 
pearance, was  in  the  outer  courts.  Solomon's  Temple,  accord- 
ing to  Warren's  estimate,  covered  an  area  of  900  feet  from  east 
to  west  by  600  feet  from  north  to  south.  The  so-called  Tem- 
ple of  Herod,  which  was  a  reconstruction  and  enlargement  of 
the  Temple  of  Zerubbabel,  "appears  to  have  consisted,"  says 
Warren,  "of  the  old  enclosure  of  King  Solomon's  Temple,  the 
old  palace,  and  a  piece  built  in  at  the  southwest  angle  to  make 
the  whole  a  square  of  about  900  feet  a  side.  And  besides  this 
there  was  the  portion  on  which  the  towers  protecting  the  side 
of  the  Temple  rested,  called  by  Josephus  the  Exhedra,  and 
connected  with  the  main  castle  of  Antonia  by  a  double  set  of 
cloisters."2 

Much  confusion  has  arisen  in  the  minds  of  Bible  students 
from  failure  to  distinguish  between  three  different  usages  of  the 
word  "Temple"  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

1  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  63.  *  Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  p.  252. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  195 

i st.  The  word  is  used  frequently  to  describe  the  Holy 
House  with  its  court,  which  stood  upon  the  summit  of  the 
mountain,  and  was  double  the  size  of  the  Tabernacle. 

2d.  It  is  applied  to  all  the  buildings  and  courts  included  in 
the  Sanctuary  proper,  or  "Mountain  of  the  House,"  which 
was  fenced  off  from  those  who  were  not  acknowledged  as  "Is- 
raelites "  by  birth  or  adoption. 

3d.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  describe  all  of  the  closely  com- 
pacted structure  within  the  limits  of  the  retaining  walls. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  all  the  space  between  the  east  and  west 
walls,  now  standing,  and  between  the  Tower  of  Antonia  and 
the  south  wall  was  occupied  by  the  Sanctuary  with  its  courts 
and  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

The  Court  of  the  Gentiles  was  the  lowest  level  or  terrace 
of  the  Holy  Mountain.  It  was  separated  from  the  Sanctuary 
or  Mountain  of  the  House  by  a  stone  wall  four  or  five  feet  in 
height,  called  "the  Soreg."  Along  this  wall  at  intervals  stone 
tablets  were  placed,  warning  all  who  were  not  Israelites  to  re- 
main outside  under  penalty  of  death.  Near  the  site  of  the 
Tower  of  Antonia,  M.  Ganneau  found  one  of  these  tablets 
with  a  Greek  inscription  in  large,  clear-cut  characters.  The 
translation  is  given  as  follows  :  "  No  stranger  is  to  enter  within 
the  balustrade  round  the  temple  and  inclosure.  Whoever  is 
caught  will  be  responsible  to  himself  for  his  death,  which  will 
ensue."  This  inscription  confirms  the  statement  of  Josephus 
and  also  throws  additional  light  on  the  incident  connected  with 
the  arrest  of  the  apostle  Paul  while  presenting  an  offering  for 
himself  and  his  companions  in  the  Temple.  (Acts  xxi.  28,  29, 
xxiv.  n,  xxvi.  21.) 

The  Outer  Cloisters,  which  surrounded  this  spacious 
court,  were  known  as  the  Northern  and  Western  Cloisters, 
Solomon's  Porch  and  the  Royal  Cloisters. 

The  Royal  Cloister  was  the  chief  glory  of  this  outer  court. 
It  extended  along  the  entire  length  of  the  south  wall  and  was 
105  feet  in  breadth.  It  was  divided  by  rows  of  stately  columns 


196 


The  Land  of  Israel 


into  three  arcades:  the  central  one  being  100  feet  high  and 
forty-five  broad.  Those  on  the  sides  were  fifty  feet  high  and 
thirty  broad.  "  At  the  southeast  corner  the  roof  of  the  cloister 
was  326  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  Kedron.  The  height  of  the 
pinnacle,  which  is  said  to  have  risen  at  that  corner,  is  unknown ; 
whatever  it  was,  it  must  be  added  to  that  giddy  height  of  326 
feet."1 

The  Mountain  of  the  House  included  the  sacred  space 
within  the  Soreg.  According  to  the  Mishna  this  enclosure  was 
a  square  of  500  cubits,  or  about  750  feet  on  each  side.  The 
outer  Court  or  Chel,  as  it  was  usually  termed,  was  a  large  open 
space  with  five  entrance  gates.  A  flight  of  fourteen  steps  led 
up  to  it  from  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles.  Within  this  Chel,  the 
place  of  assembly  for  all  who  were  recognized  as  Israelites,  was 
the  Temple  proper,  with  its  several  courts  and  enclosing  walls 
and  magnificent  buildings. 

The  Inner  Court,  which  included  the  Inner  Cloisters,  the 
Court  of  Israel,  and  the  Court  of  the  Priests,  had  seven  gates, 
— three  on  the  north,  three  on  the  south  and  one  on  the  east. 
The  Court  of  the  Women  was  a  large,  open  space,  surrounded 
by  store  chambers,  to  the  east  of  the  Inner  Court.  It  was 
eight  feet  higher  than  the  Outer  Court  and  had  three  entrance 
gates.  The  name  indicates  that  the  women  had  the  same 
privileges  here  as  those  accorded,  in  the  other  courts,  to  the 
male  worshippers. 

"  The  C  ourt  of  Israel  was  ten  feet  above  the  Court  of  the 
Women ;  then  the  Court  of  the  Priests  on  a  level  three  feet 
higher ;  and  lastly,  the  temple  floor,  eight  feet  above  this  and 
therefore  twenty-nine  feet  above  the  level  of  the  outer  court  of 
the  Gentiles.  It  is  most  interesting  to  know  that  these  levels 
correspond  closely  with  the  ascertained  rock-levels  round  about 
the  Sakhra  or  '  holy  stone  '  now  covered  by  the  Dome  of  the 
Rock.  That  stone  was  probably  of  old  time  the  resting-place 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  '  The  house '  on  the  mountain  was 
1  Henderson's  Geography,  p.  145. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  197 

seventy-nine  cubits  wide  by  100  cubits  long.  The  facade  was 
100  cubits  in  breadth  and  height,  and  was  gilded,  and  over  its 
great  entrance  '  was  spread  out  a  golden  vine,  with  its  branches 
hanging  down  from  a  great  height,  the  largeness  and  fine  work- 
manship of  which  was  a  surprising  sight.'  '  (Ant.  xv.  ii.  3-)1 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  great  porch  in  front  of  the 
Temple,  whose  dimensions  have  been  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  an  evident  exaggeration,  resembled  the  pylon  of  an  Egyp- 
tian temple.  On  this  supposition  the  difficulty  in  regard  to 
*he  height  of  the  porch  and  the  great  central  entrance  described 
^y  Josephus  disappears. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  with  its  triple  walls,  its  grand  portals  and 
ascents,  its  spacious  courts,  its  galleries  and  store  chambers,  its 
colonnades,  porches  and  cloisters — the  Temple  on  Mount  Moriah 
was  an  immense  structure,  the  like  of  which,  for  beauty  and 
costliness,  has  probably  never  been  equalled  on  earth.  As  seen 
from  the  Mount  of  Olives  it  was  a  terraced  mountain  of  gleam- 
ing marble  surmounted  by  a  coronal  of  glittering  gold. 

"  The  Holy  City  lifted  high  her  towers ; 
And  higher  yet  the  glorious  temple  reared, 
Her  pile  far  off  appearing  like  a  mount 
Of  alabaster  tip't  with  golden  spires." — MILTON. 

No  wonder  the  disciples,  who  noted  how  it  was  "adorned 
with  goodly  stones  and  gifts,"  were  moved  to  say,  as  they 
looked  down  upon  it  from  Olivet  in  the  glowing  light  of  the 
setting  sun  "  Master,  see  what  manner  of  stones  and  what 
buildings  are  here  !  "  (Mark.  xiii.  i.) 

The  sacred  memories,  the  thronging  events,  the  unuttered  and 
unutterable  longings  which  have  been,  and  forever  shall  be  as- 
sociated with  this  holy  mount,  cannot  be  fittingly  expressed  by 
voice  or  pen.  Crowned  with  the  Sanctuary  of  Jehovah ;  illu- 
minated with  the  brightness  of  His  glory ;  trodden  by  the  feet 
of  Patriarchs,  Prophets,  Priests  and  Kings :  and,  more  than 

1  Hend.  Geog.,p.  146. 


198  The  Land  of  Israel 

all,  hallowed  by  the  presence  of  the  Eternal  Son  of  God,  who 
humbled  Himself  to  take  upon  Him  our  human  nature,  this 
place  stands  unchallenged  among  holy  places  as  the  most 
memorable  spot  on  earth. 

Objects  and  Places  of  Special  Interest  Outside  the 
Walls. — These  will  be  grouped  together  as  far  as  possible, 
while  making  the  circuit  of  the  walls. 

i.  Catacombs  and  Tombs. — The  so-called  Tombs  of  the 
Kings  and  of  the  Judges,  north  of  the  city,  a  half  mile  and  a 
mile  respectively,  are  regarded  as  the  best  examples  of  the 
numerous  subterranean  burial-places,  which  have  been  found 
on  every  side  of  the  city. 

Both  are  rock-hewn  tombs  in  a  connected  series,  and  have 
been  excavated  on  the  same  general  plan.  There  is  nothing, 
however,  tv  identify  either  of  these  tombs  or  catacombs  with 
the  names  they  bear.  The  former  has  a  vestibule,  or  open 
court,  ninety-three  feet  long  by  eighty-seven  wide  and  twenty 
deep,  sunk  in  the  surface  rock.  It  has  been  identified  by  Dr. 
Robinson — and  in  this  later  authorities  concur — with  the 
Mausoleum  of  Queen  Helena,  a  Jewish  proselyte,  of  Adiabene. 

"  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Dr.  Manning,  "  not  only  for  the  extent  and 
perfect  preservation  of  the  sepulchral  chambers,  but  for  the  ingenious 
mechanism  by  which  the  entrance  was  closed  or  opened — a  huge  stone 
being  rolled  to  or  from  the  mouth  of  the  entrance.  It  thus  affords  an  in- 
teresting contemporary  illustration  of  the  words  of  the  evangelists,  «  Who 
shall  roll  away  the  stone  from  the  door  of  the  sepulchre  ? '  And  when 
they  looked  they  saw  the  stone  rolled  away,  for  it  was  very  great." l 
(Mark.  xvi.  3,  4 ;  Luke  xxiv.  2.) 

The  slopes  and  steep  cliffs  of  the  lower  valleys  of  Hinnom 
and  Jehoshaphat  are  honeycombed  with  burial  chambers  of  all 
shapes  and  sizes.  They  are  usually  single  or  communicating 
chambers  with  a  doorway  in  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  rock. 
In  some  instances  there  are  separate  niches  or  recesses  for  the 
bodies.  A  tomb  with  outer  court,  side  entrance  and  small 
i  Holy  Fields,  p.  127. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  199 

chambers  was  excavated  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  probable  site 
of  Golgotha,  in  1881.  It  is  nearer  to  the  wall  than  any  Jewish 
tomb  yet  discovered  and  is  specially  interesting  because  of  its 
location  and  date  of  construction.  If  Major  Conder  is  right  in 
his  suggestion  it  belongs  to  the  centuries  immediately  preceding 
the  Christian  era. 

In  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  there  is  a  conspicuous  group  of 
monuments  and  rock  tombs  differing  in  age  and  styles  of  arch- 
itecture. These  are  known  as  the  tombs  of  Absalom,  Jehosh- 
aphat, Zachariah,  and  St.  James.  "Two  of  these  are  real 
monuments  of  rock ;  the  other  two  are  excavated  tombs  with 
ornamented  portals."  The  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  in 
this  vicinity  and  portions  of  Mount  Zion,  without  the  walls  are 
literally  paved  with  tombstones. 

The  reputed  Tomb  of  David  (Neby  Baud)  is  in  the  crypt 
of  a  mosque  on  the  southern  slope  of  Zion.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  cluster  of  massive  buildings  one  of  which  is  called  the  Cce- 
naculum.  The  ancient  tradition  which  associates  this  place 
with  the  upper  room  in  which  the  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted, 
and  in  which  afterward  was  witnessed  the  descent  of  the  Spirit 
— may  be  correct,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
building  which  now  marks  the  site  was  the  one  in  which  these 
memorable  events  took  place.  In  1894  a  Latin  inscription  was 
found  by  Dr.  Bliss  in  a  wall  behind  one  of  the  gates  of  Neby 
Daud,  which  had  been  blown  down  during  a  storm.  It  proves 
to  be  a  votive  tablet  to  Jupiter  erected  by  the  Third  Legion. 
Canon  Dalton  gives  the  probable  date  of  the  inscription  as  not 
earlier  than  115,  nor  later  than  the  summer  of  117,  A.  D. 

The  traditional  Aceldama  or  Potter's  Field  (Acts  i.  19; 
Matt,  xxvii.  6-8)  is  a  rugged  plot  of  ground  on  the  south  side 
of  the  lower  basin  of  the  Hinnom  valley.  In  this  "  field,"  the 
boundaries  of  which  are  not  marked,  is  a  cave  artificially  en- 
larged which  has  long  been  used  as  a  charne"!  house.  Down  to 
a  very  recent  period  the  entire  plot  has  been  used  as  "  a  field 
to  bury  strangers  in."  Colonel  Wilson  mentions  the  fact  that 


200  The  Land  of  Israel 

clay  from  this  neighborhood  is  still  used  by  the  potters  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

2.  The  Place  of  the  Crucifixion. — A  rounded  knoll  out- 
side the  Damascus  Gate,  which  commands  a  view  over  the  en- 
tire city,  has  been  generally  accepted  as  the  place  of  the 
crucifixion  by  those  who  discredit  the  traditional  site  within  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  smooth  rounded  summit 
of  this  elevation,  especially  when  seen  from  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  closely  resembles  a  human  skull  in  outline,  and  may 
have  suggested  the  name  Golgotha  or  place  of  a  skull.  On 
the  southern  side  of  this  knoll  is  a  precipitous  cliff  and  at  its 
base  the  opening  to  an  artificial  cavern  or  quarry — the  so-called 
Grotto  of  Jeremiah.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  this  hill 
was  outside  the  second  wall :  and  it  must  always  have  been 
close  to  that  wall  and  also  to  the  main  road  that  leads  to  the 
north.  Attention  was  called  to  this  site  by  Mr.  Fisher  Howe 
of  Brooklyn,  in  a  booklet,  published  in  1871,  and  entitled 
"The  True  Site  of  Calvary."  Major  Conder  of  the  Survey 
Fund,  General  Gordon,  Sir  Wm.  Dawson,  Canon  Tristram, 
Dr.  Henderson,  Dr.  Merrill,  and  other  eminent  authorities, 
have  accepted  this  identification.  The  requirements  of  the 
Gospel  narrative,  as  summed  up  by  Mr.  Howe,  are  as  follows : 

1.  Calvary  was  a  place  outside  the  walls  of  the  city.     (Heb.  xiii.  12; 
Matt,  xxvii.  31,  32  ;  John  xix.  16,  17.) 

2.  It  was  a  place  nigh  to  the  city.     (John  xix.  20.) 

3.  It  was  popularly  known  under  the  general  designation  of  Kranion. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  33;  John  xix.  17.) 

4.  It  was  obviously  nigh  to  one  of  the  leading  thoroughfares  to  and 
from  Jerusalem.     (Matt,  xxvii.  39;  Mark  xv.  29.) 

5.  It  was  nigh  to  sepulchres  and  gardens.     (John  xix.  38-42.) 

6.  It    was  very  conspicuous ;  that  is  it  could   be  seen  by  those  at  a 
distance.    (Matt,  xxvii.  55  ;  Luke  xxiii.  35  ;  John  xix.  20.) ' 

All  of  these  conditions  appear  to  be  met  and  satisfied  in  the 
locations  outside  the  Damascus  Gate.    More  recently  this  view 
i  Wilson's  In  Scripture  Lands,  p.  228. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  20V 

has  been  strengthened  by  the  discovery  of  the  tomb  already 
mentioned  which  proves  the  place  to  have  been  both  without 
the  gates,  and  nigh  to  rock-hewn  Sepulchres ;  and  by  a  Jewish 
tradition,  which  connects  the  knoll  with  the  "  place  of  stoning," 
or  public  execution  ground  of  the  Hebrews.  There  is  also  a 
Christian  tradition  as  old  as  the  fifth  century  which  places  the 
stoning  of  Stephen  in  the  same  locality.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
in  this  connection  that  the  portal  now  called  the  Damascus 
Gate  was  earlier  known  as  St.  Stephen's  Gate.1 

3.  Olivet  and  its  Sacred  Sites. — The  Mount  of  Olives 
(Jebel  et  Tur)  is  so  close  to  Jerusalem  that  it  has  always  had  a 
place  in  its  topography  as  well  as  in  its  history.  It  is  not  an 
isolated  mountain  but  a  ridge  with  three  distinctly-marked, 
rounded  summits.  The  southern  portion  runs  for  nearly  two 
miles  north  and  south,  or  in  a  line  almost  parallel  with  the 
ridge  of  Moriah.  It  ends  toward  the  south  in  a  lower  ridge, 
the  summit  of  which  is  known  as  the  "Mount  of  Offence." 
This  name  has  been  given  to  it  on  the  supposition  that  it  was 
the  "high  place  for  Chemosh,  the  abomination  of  Moab,  and 
for  Molech,  the  abomination  of  the  children  of  Ammon." 
These  degrading  forms  of  idolatrous  worship,  which  Solomon 
encouraged  in  the  later  period  of  his  reign,  were  said  to  be  "  in 
the  hill  that  is  before, — or  eastward  of — Jerusalem."  (i.  Kings 
xi.  7,  8.) 

The  central  eminence,  to  which  the  name  Olivet,  or  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  properly  applies  is  directly  opposite  the  Tem- 
ple area.  Its  elevation  is  2,682  feet,  or  about  170  feet  higher 
than  Zion  and  259  feet  higher  than  Moriah.  This  summit  is 
the  traditional  site  of  the  ascension  of  Christ  and  here  the  so- 
called  "Church  of  the  Ascension"  stands.  The  location, 
however,  does  not  harmonize  with  any  of  the  details  of  the 
Evangelist's  story.  About  a  mile  north  of  this  summit  the 
ridge  curves  to  the  west,  culminating  in  another  summit,  the 
generally  accepted  site  of  Mount  Scopus,  where  the  Roman  gen- 
1  Hend.  Geog.,  p.  164. 


202 


The  Land  of  Israel 


eral  Titus  drew  up  his  legions  in  full  view  of  the  city,  before  he 
began  its  investment. 

The  view  from  the  summit  of  Olivet  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  impressive  within  the  limits  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  includes  nearly  all  the  sacred  sites  connected  with 
the  humiliation  and  suffering  of  our  Lord  from  Bethlehem  to 
the  place  of  His  ascension.  Southward  the  range  of  vision  ex- 
tends to  the  height  at  Hebron ;  westward  every  object  on  the 
plateau  of  Jerusalem  stands  out  with  startling  distinctness ; 
while  to  the  east  is  an  unequalled  panoramic  view  of  the  rugged 
Wilderness,  the  Jordan  valley — nearly  4,000  feet  below — portions 
of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  clearly-cut  outlines  of  the  mountains 
of  Moab  and  Gilead.  Here  the  eager  watchmen  stood,  long 
ages  ago,  to  catch  the  first  glow  of  the  beacon  light  on  those 
distant  mountains,  which  gave  notice  of  the  appearance  of  the 
new  moon  by  which  the  beginnings  of  the  sacred  feasts  were 
regulated.  The  pathetic  story  of  the  passage  of  King  David 
over  the  summit  of  this  mountain  when  he  fled  from  the  face 
of  Absalom,  is  the  first  and  only  important  event  associated 
with  it  before  the  time  of  Christ. 

"  And  David  went  up  by  the  ascent  of  Mount  Olivet,  and  wept  as  he 
went  up,  and  had  his  head  covered,  and  he  went  barefoot :  and  all  the 
people  that  were  with  him  covered  every  man  his  head,  and  they  went 
up,  weeping  as  they  went."  (2.  Sam.  xv.  30.) 

There  were  doubtless  many  occasions  of  rejoicing  also,  on 
Olivet :  as  when  the  pilgrims  bands  had  gained  its  summit  and 
looked  down  on  the  Holy  City ;  or  when  the  people  went  forth 
with  gladness  of  heart  over  its  wooded  slopes  "to  fetch  olive 
and  pine  and  myrtle  branches  to  make  booths,  as  it  is  written." 
(Neh.  viii.  15.)  And  yet,  as  Dean  Stanley  has  said,  its  lasting 
glory  belongs  not  to  the  Old  Dispensation,  but  to  the  New.  It 
is  preeminent  among  the  sacred  mountains,  because,  more  than 
all  others,  it  was  honored  *as  the  favorite  retreat  and  quiet  rest- 
ing-place of  Jesus.  In  the  crowded  city  He  taught  and 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  203 

ministered  to  the  suffering  and  the  needy,  but  when  the 
shadows  of  evening  began  to  fall  He  went  out  to  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  Here  He  slept  through  the  night  under  the  wide 
spreading  branches  of  the  trees,  or  sought  retirement  for  medi- 
tation and  prayer ;  or  entered  into  the  home  at  Bethany  where 
He  ever  found  the  kindly  sympathy  and  true  hearted  affection 
which  His  human  nature  craved.  Here,  says  Dr.  Thomson,  the 
God-man  chose  to  reveal  more  of  His  human  nature  than  any- 
where else  on  earth ;  and  here  also  were  witnessed  the  most 
affecting  and  stupendous  scenes  in  the  history  of  our  Blessed 
Redeemer. 

Four  places  on  the  slopes  of  Olivet  are  specially  note- 
worthy in  connection  with  the  closing  scenes  of  our  Lord's 
earthly  life  and  ministry.  These  are — Bethany ;  the  place 
where  He  wept  over  Jerusalem  ;  the  place  of  the  Ascension  ; 
and  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane. 

Bethany  is  pleasantly  situated  amid  groves  of  olive,  fig  and 
almond  trees  on  the  southeastern  slope  or  shoulder  of  the  moun- 
tain, something  less  than  two  miles  from  Jerusalem.  "A  wild 
mountain-hamlet  screened  by  an  intervening  ridge  from  the  view 
of  the  top  of  Olivet,  perched  on  its  broken  plateau  of  rock, 
the  last  collection  of  human  habitations  before  the  desert-hills 
which  reach  to  Jericho — this  is  the  modern  village  of  El  Laz- 
arieh,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  clustering  around  the 
traditional  site  of  the  one  house  and  grave  which  give  it  an  un- 
dying interest."  *  The  modern  "house  and  grave"  exhibited 
here  are  of  very  doubtful  genuineness,  but  the  identification  of 
El  Lazarieh  with  the  "  town  of  Mary  and  her  sister  Martha" 
and  Lazarus,  has  never  been  questioned.  But  for  this  one 
home — the  type  of  all  that  is  beautiful  and  sacred  in  the  Chris- 
tian home  on  earth — it  would  long  ago  have  been  forgotten. 
Its  present  condition  has  little  to  commend  it,  but  all  its  associ- 
ations with  that  far-away  past  are  tender,  sacred  and  sublime. 
Here  Jesus  commended  the  choice  of  Mary  who  counted  it  her 
*  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  256. 


204  The  Land  of  Israel 

greatest  privilege  to  sit  at  His  feet  and  hear  His  word.  (Luke 
x.  42.)  Here  He  approved  the  service  of  Martha,  so  lovingly 
rendered,  and  revived  her  drooping  faith  in  the  hour  of  anguish 
and  bereavement.  Here  He  wept  with  the  sisters  at  the  grave 
of  Lazarus,  and  anon  with  a  voice  which  penetrated  not  only 
to  the  inner  recesses  of  the  tomb,  but  to  the  abode  of  the  freed 
spirits,  called  back  the  dear  object  of  their  affections  to  life, 
and  the  further  enjoyment  of  that  sanctified  home.  (John,  chap, 
xi.)  In  Bethany  afterward  the  grateful  Mary  anointed  the 
feet  of  Jesus  with  the  costly  box  of  ointment,  and  wiped  His 
feet  with  her  hair,  while  He  reclined  at  the  table,  as  their 
honored  guest.  And  it  is  still  true,  according  to  the  Master's 
word,  that  wheresoever  His  gospel  has  been  preached  in  the 
whole  world,  there  also  has  this,  that  this  woman  hath  done, 
been  told  as  a  memorial  of  her.  It  was  from  Bethany  that  the 
triumphal  march  began  toward  Jerusalem  on  that  memorable 
day  when  the  rejoicing  multitude  took  branches  of  palm  trees, 
and  went  forth  to  meet  Him,  crying  Hosanna :  Blessed  is  the 
King  of  Israel  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  (John  xii. 
13.)  Three  ancient  roads,  or  pathways,  lead  over  the  western 
slope  of  the  mountain,  from  the  bridge  over  the  Kedron  valley, 
to  the  town  of  Bethany.  One  passes  around  its  northern 
shoulder;  another  runs  southeast,  and  passing  close  to  the 
new  Greek  church,  ascends  the  steep  slope  to  the  summit; 
the  third  passes  around  the  southern  shoulder  of  Olivet  and 
thence  over  a  low  bridge  to  the  recess  in  which  the  village  lies. 
This  road  has  recently  been  made  wide  enough  for  the  passage 
of  carriages  over  the  entire  route  to  the  Jordan.  It  is  now,  and 
always  has  been  the  main  thoroughfare  to  Bethany  and  Jericho. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  this  was  the  route  of  the 
triumphal  procession. 

The  place  where  Jesus  wept  over  Jerusalem  was  at  a  point 
where  the  road,  slightly  ascending,  turns  sharply  around  an 
overhanging  ledge  of  rock.  Here  the  whole  city  would  come 
instantly  into  view.  "It  is  hardly  possible,"  says  Dean  Stan- 


O 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  205 

ley,  "  to  doubt  that  this  rise  and  turn  of  the  road — where  His 
eyes  beheld  what  is  still  the  most  impressive  view  which  the 
neighhorhood  of  Jerusalem  furnishes — was  the  exact  spot  where 
the  multitude  paused,  and  He,  when  He  beheld  the  city,  wept 
over  it."1  The  site  of  Bethphage  which  is  mentioned  in 
this  connection  is  not  definitely  known. 

The  place  of  the  Ascension  was  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  Bethany.  All  the  circumstances  of  the  narrative  forbid 
its  location  in  a  public  place,  or  in  full  view  of  the  city,  where 
an  uncertain  tradition  has  placed  it.  The  statement  of  St. 
Luke,  that  He  led  His  disciple  out  as  far  as  to  Bethany  cannot 
be  lightly  set  aside.  The  author  has  rested  upon  a  natural 
platform  of  rock  and  earth  overhanging  the  town,  and  shut  out 
from  view  by  the  ridge  of  Olivet,  where  every  incident  recorded 
in  the  gospel  narrative  might  have  taken  place.  It  is  probable 
that  Jesus  took  the  direct  road  to  Bethany  as  the  morning  was 
about  to  dawn,  and  at  this  point  or  somewhere  in  its  vicinity, 
overlooking  the  place  associated  with  so  many  blessed  memor- 
ies, "  He  lifted  up  His  hands  and  blessed  them.  And  it  came 
to  pass,  while  He  blessed  them,  He  was  parted  from  them,  and 
carried  up  into  heaven."  (Luke  xxiv.  50-53.) 

The  Garden  of  Gethsemane. — This  sacred  retreat — we 
are  told — was  over  the  brook  Kedron,  and  hence  at  the  base 
of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The  place  which  for  many  centuries 
has  been  known  and  revered  as  Gethsemane  is  just  beyond  the 
bridge  that  spans  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Kedron,  and  nearly 
opposite  the  Golden  Gate.  It  is  an  enclosure  of  about  an  acre 
of  ground,  in  which  are  eight  gnarled  olive  trees  of  extraordi- 
nary girth  and  evidently  of  great  age.  It  is  scarcely  possible 
to  resist  the  impression  that  the  small  space  which  is  here  set 
apart  by  the  Latin  church,  as  the  scene  of  the  Saviour's  mys- 
terious agony,  is  in  a  location  that  does  not  admit  of  the  pri- 
vacy and  seclusion,  which  the  narrative  of  the  Evangelists 
plainly  imply.  It  is  the  meeting-place  of  several  roads,  which 
1  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  260. 


206  The  Land  of  Israel 

must  always  have  converged  in  or  about  this  spot,  and  it  is 
scarcely  more  than  250  yards  from  the  city  wall.  It  is  cer- 
tainly a  valid  objection  to  this  enclosed  space  that  it  was  neces- 
sarily a  public  resort,  and  especially  so  at  the  passover  season, 
when  crowds  were  passing  in  and  out  the  eastern  gates  at  every 
hour  of  the  day  and  night.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note,  also, 
that  the  distinctive  name,  Gethsemane  was  given  to  the  garden 
or  olive-yard,  which  Jesus  was  wont  to  visit,  because  there  was 
an  oil  press  within  it  or  belonging  to  it.  Professor  Kendall 
Harris  has  recently  suggested  a  site  about  one  fourth  of  a  mile 
north  of  the  traditional  garden,  where  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  oil 
press  have  been  discovered,  surrounded  by  olive  groves,  some 
of  which  are  very  old.  This  oil  press,  like  most  of  its  kind  in 
Palestine,  was  a  permanent  structure  with  rock-hewn  vats  and 
heavy  rollers  for  crushing  the  fruit.  It  is  possible  that  this  re- 
tired spot  indicates  the  true  location  of  the  hallowed  place 
where  the  Redeemer,  on  the  night  of  His  betrayal,  prayed  in 
agony  of  spirit  while  His  sweat  was  as  it  were  great  drops  of 
blood,  falling  down  to  the  ground.  (Luke  xxii.  44;  Matt, 
xxvi,  36-45  ;  Mark  xiv.  32-41 ;  John  xviii.  i.) 

4.  The  King's  Dale  or  King's  Garden. — These  desig- 
nations apply  to  that  portion  of  the  Kedron  valley  which  ex- 
tends from  the  southeast  angle  of  the  Haram  to  the  confluence 
of  the  valleys  above  Bir  Eyub  (Well  of  Job).     It  was  favorably 
situated  for  irrigation  and  has  always  been  noted  for  its  extra- 
ordinary fertility.     It   was   the  place  of  Absalom's  tomb    (2 
Sam.   xviii.    18),   and   the    meeting    place    of  Abraham  and 
Melchizedek  after  the  rescue  of  Lot.     (Gen.  xiv.  17-24.) 

5.  Tophet  (Gehenna)  was  the  distinctive  name  for  the 
lower  basin  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom.     Its  slopes  are  carefully 
terraced  and  fertile  garden  plots  join  each  other  throughout 
its  length  in  almost  continuous  succession.     The  horrid  rites 
which  were  practiced  here  by  Moloch  worshippers  in  the  days 
of  the  kings :  and  its  selection  as  the  place  of  burning,  where 
the  offal  of  the  city  and  the  altar  were  consumed,  have  made 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  207 

its  name  infamous  throughout  all  succeeding  generations.  (2. 
Kings  xxiii.  10  ;  Isa.  xxx.  33,  Ixvi.  24.)  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  there  is  nothing  in  the  natural  features  of  this  locality  to 
give  it  the  evil  preeminence  which  now  attaches  to  it. 

6.  The  Plain  of  Rephaim,  now  known  as  El  Bukeia,  is 
southwest  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  extends  very  nearly  to  its 
walls.    For  a  mile  or  more  it  is  an  open  plain  or  basin  affording  a 
broad  passage-way  in  the  direction  of  Bethlehem.     It  then  con- 
tracts into  a  narrow  valley  (Wady  el  Werd)  which  bears  off 
toward  the  west.     The  railroad  approaches  the  city  by  way  of 
this  valley  and  plain.     Its  Hebrew  name  associates  it  with  some 
unrecorded  story  of  the  aboriginal  race  of  giants  which  dwelt 
in  the  east  and  south.     (Josh.  xv.  8,  xviii.  16.)     It  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines  in  two  notable  battles  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  David,     (i  Chron.  xi.  15,  xiv.  9-16;  2  Sam. 

•  I7-25-) 

7.  Pools  and  Sources  of  Water  Supply.— (i)     The 

Fountain  of  the  Virgin  so-called,  issues  from  a  hidden  source 
under  the  eastern  base  of  Ophel,  about  950  feet  south  of  the 
Triple  Gate.  It  is  the  only  spring  of  flowing  water  in  or  about 
modern  Jerusalem. 

The  brook,  which  once  flowed  down  the  Kedron  valley,  has 
been  choked  by  avalanches  of  debris  from  the  heights  above, 
and  its  streams  have  doubtless  been  diverted  into  subterranean 
channels.  There  are  evidences,  also,  of  a  stream  or  fountain, 
with  a  similar  history,  which  long  ago  coursed  down  the  Tyro- 
poeon  valley.  Dr.  Bliss  thinks  it  probable,  in  view  of  recent 
discoveries  along  the  line  of  the  ancient  southern  wall,  that  the 
references  of  Josephus  to  the  "  Fountain  of  Siloam,"  which  he 
places  outside  the  city,  apply  to  the  spring-head,  and  not  to  the 
Pool  of  Siloam,  as  has  been  generally  supposed.  "It  is  quite 
possible,"  he  says,  "that  the  term  Siloam  might  have  been  ap- 
plied equally  to  the  Virgin's  Fountain  as  the  source  of  the  waters 
which  fed  the  Pool  of  Siloam."  l  M.  Ganneau's  identification 
» P.  E.  Quarterly,  '97,  p.  254. 


The  Land  of  Israel 

of  this  well-spring  with  En  Rogel  (the  spring  of  the  Fuller), 
mentioned  several  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  has  been  gener- 
ally accepted,  and  it  is  known  by  this  name  on  the  Ordnance 
map.  Directly  opposite,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Kedron  val- 
ley, is  a  precipitous  cliff,  still  known  as  Zahweileh,  which  with- 
out doubt  is  the  "  Stone  of  Zoheleth."  The  discovery  of  this 
ancient  landmark  by  M.  Ganneau  gave  the  clue  to  the  location 
of  En  Rogel.  It  is  described  in  the  Book  of  the  Kings  as  the 
"Stone  of  Zoheleth,  which  is  by  En  Rogel."  At  this  place 
Adonijah  prepared  a  great  feast  for  his  adherents,  and  was  pro- 
claimed King,  (i  Kings  i.  19.) 

The  straggling  village  of  Siloam  (Silwan),  once  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament  in  connection  with  the  fall  of  its  tower, 
(Luke  xiii.  4)  is  perched  on  the  summit  of  this  cliff.  A  rugged 
pathway,  or  series  of  steps  cut  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  affords 
a  direct,  but  somewhat  perilous  passage  from  the  town  to  the 
fountain,  its  natural  source  of  water  supply.  The  suggestion 
that  this  fountain  is  also  identical  with  the  Upper  Pool  or  Spring 
of  Gihon  ("the  spring  head  "),  and  that  the  Pool  of  Siloam 
represents  the  Lower  Gihon,  has  met  with  favor  and  bids  fair 
to  solve  some  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  history  of  these 
pools.  On  the  assumption  that  this  proposed  identification  can 
be  established  it  would  follow  that  Solomon  was  anointed  by 
the  Pool  of  Siloam.  Inasmuch  as  the  hill  of  Ophel  came  be- 
tween this  point  and  the  place  where  Adonijah  was  proclaimed, 
the  party  of  Solomon  would  not  be  seen  on  their  way  to  Gihon. 
"  But  when  the  anointing  had  taken  place,  and  the  party  were 
going  back  up  the  Tyropceon  toward  David's  house,  the  people 
piped  their  music  and  shouted  their  joy  till  the  earth  rang 
again."  *  It  would  seem  from  the  narrative  that  the  conspira- 
tors did  not  know  that  their  plans  were  foiled  until  they  heard 
the  trumpet  and  the  ominous  shouts,  "  God  save  King  Solo- 
mon." ( i  Kings  i.  38-46.) 

The  spring  head,  or  visible  source  of  En  Rogel  is  a  cave, 
1  St  Clair's  Buried  Cities  and  Bible  Countries,  p.  282. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  209 

artificially  enlarged,  which  lies  twenty-five  feet  below  the  pres- 
ent surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  probable  that  the  stream  from 
this  source  originally  ran  out  at  the  base  of  Ophel  and  down 
the  Kedron  valley,  and  that  the  excavation  was  afterward  made 
higher  up,  for  the  purpose  of  diverting  it  in  another  direction. 
The  bottom  of  the  cave  in  which  the  water  rises  at  irregular 
intervals,  is  reached  by  two  flights  of  stone  steps,  (thirty  in  all). 
When  the  flow  fills  the  basin  in  the  bottom  of  the  cave  it  passes 
through  a  rock-hewn  tunnel,  1 708  feet  in  length,  to  the  Pool  of 
Siloam  in  the  Tyropoeon  valley.*  The  following  description  of 
this  interesting  fountain  and  its  outgoings  is  given  by  Sir  Charles 
Wilson : 

'« This  spring  has  a  constant  though  small  flow  of  water,  and  also  an 
intermittent  one  which  appears  to  depend  upon  the  rainfall,  and  which 
consists  in  a  sudden  increase  of  the  ordinary  flow.  In  winter  there  are 
from  three  to  four  flows  per  diem ;  in  summer  two ;  later  on,  in  autumn 
only  one ;  but  after  a  dry  winter  the  flow  takes  place  only  once  in  three 
or  four  days.  ...  In  connection  with  the  tunnel  passage  Captain 
Warren  opened  out  a  rock  hewn  canal,  which  ran  for  some  distance  due 
west  with  a  slight  fall,  so  that  the  water  from  the  spring  could  flow  down 
to  the  west  end  where  a  shallow  basin  had  been  excavated  to  receive  it. 
From  this  point  a  circular  shaft  more  than  forty  feet  high,  led  upward  to 
a  great  corridor  excavated  in  the  rock,  whence  a  flight  of  steps  gave  ac- 
cess to  the  surface  at  a  point  on  Ophel,  which  must  have  been  well  within 
the  ancient  walls  of  the  city.  It  was  thus  possible  for  the  Jews  on  the 
approach  of  an  enemy  to  close  or  seal  the  well  with  blocks  of  stone,  and 
at  the  same  time  procure  a  supply  of  water  for  their  own  use  by  means  of 
the  shaft  or  well  within  the  walls.  In  the  corridor  three  glass  lamps  of 
curious  construction  were  found  placed  at  intervals,  as  if  to  light  up  the 
passage  to  the  shaft.  A  little  pile  of  charcoal,  as  if  for  cooking,  a  dish 
glazed  inside,  jars  of  red  pottery,  and  other  lamps,  were  also  found,  as 
well  as  an  iron  ring  overhanging  the  shaft,  to  which  a  rope  might  have 
been  attached  for  drawing  water."  l 

This  rock-hewn  canal,  sixty-seven  feet  long,  with  its  shaft  on 
Ophel,  was  evidently  the  older  portion  of  this  cutting,  and  was 
utilized  as  far  as  it  extended,  when  the  tunnel  through  the 
i  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  L*  ^p.  10^  104. 


210  The  Land  of  Israel 

ridge  was  undertaken.  This  accounts  in  part  at  least,  for  its 
serpentine  course. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  M.  Ganneau  that  the  deflection 
lower  down  was  made  to  avoid  interference  with  the  tombs  of 
the  Kings,  supposed  to  be  on  Ophel.  If  so  they  must  be  north 
of  the  bend,  for  Dr.  Bliss  has  excavated  the  ground  to  the 
south  of  it,  without  finding  anything  of  importance. 

En  Rogel  was  one  of  the  familiar  landmarks  which  separated 
the  portion  of  Benjamin  from  Judah,  and  its  identification  with 
the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  has  .resolved  some  of  the  difficulties 
with  respect  to  the  topography  of  other  points  in  or  about  Je- 
rusalem. (Josh.  xv.  7,  xviii.  16.)  We  have  noted  already 
that  it  was  close  to  the  scene  of  Adonijah's  feast ;  and  it  was 
also  near  to  the  hiding-place  of  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz,  the 
spies  of  David.  (2  Sam.  xvii.  17.) 

The  Pool  of  Siloam  lies  on  the  west  side  of  Ophel  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyropceon  valley.  It  is  an  artificial  receptacle 
for  the  overflow  from  the  basin  of  En  Rogel,  and  is  wholly  de- 
pendent upon  it  for  its  water  supply.  The  Siloam  inscription, 
accidentally  discovered  by  an  Arab  boy,  August,  1880,  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  important  monumental  records  of 
Old  Testament  times.  Its  position  in  the  tunnel  was  about 
nineteen  feet  from  the  Siloam  entrance,  where  a  space  of 
twenty-seven  inches  square  had  been  smoothed  to  form  the 
face  of  the  tablet.  The  letters  closely  resemble  the  Phoenician 
in  form.  It  is  conceded  by  all  the  leading  authorities  that  this 
fragment  represents  the  oldest  specimen  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage that  has  come  down  to  us,  except  the  writing  on  the 
Moabite  Stone.  Says  Dr.  Ward, — "  This  tunnel  was  not  made 
later  than  the  time  of  King  Hezekiah,  and  the  inscription  must 
be  of  that  date  or  earlier ;  and  it  is  the  only  purely  Jewish 
Palestine  inscription  of  any  length  known,  there  being  nothing 
else  but  small  seals."  l  This  discovery  confirms,  if  it  does  not 
make  certain,  the  supposition  that  the  pool  and  the  conduit 
i  N.  Y.  Indep.,  '94,  p.  553. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  211 

were  made  by  Hezekiah, — "  who  stopped  the  upper  course  of 
Gihon  and  brought  it  straight  down  to  the  west  side  of  the  city 
of  David  "  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30)  :  or,  as  it  is  elsewhere  stated, 
"  made  a  pool  and  a  conduit  and  brought  water  into  the  city." 
"The  very  raison  d'etre  of  the  Siloam  tunnel  seems  to  have 
been  to  bring  water  within  the  limits  of  the  city.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  while  we  devoted  immense  labor  to  testing  the 
contrary  theory,  yet  all  our  discoveries  have  tended  to  support 
this  view."1  Conder  thinks  that  the  Pool  of  Siloam  and  the 
lower  basin  or  old  pool  below  it  may  have  existed  in  the  time 
of  Ahaz.  (2  Chron.  xxxii.;  Isa.  vii.  3.)  The  improved 
translation  of  the  Siloam  inscription  by  Professor  Sayce  is  as 
follows : 

1.  (Behold  the)  excavation  !     Now  this  is  the  history  of  the  excava- 
tion.    While  the  excavators  were  still  lifting  up 

2.  the  pick,  each  toward  his  neighbor,  and  while  there  were  yet  three 
cubits  to  (excavate)  there  was  heard  the  voice  of  one  man 

3.  calling  to  his  neighbor,  for  there  was  an  excess  (?)  in  the  rock  on 
the  right  hand  (and  on  the  left).     And  after  that  on  the  day 

4.  of  excavating  the   excavators  had   struck  pick  against  pick,  over 
against  one  another, 

5.  the  waters  flowed  from  the  spring  to  the  pool  for  a  distance  of 
1, 200  cubits.     And  (part) 

6.  of  a  cubit  was  the  height  of  the  rock  over  the  head  of  the  excava- 
tors. 2 

Recent  excavations  (1896-7)  under  the  direction  of  the  Pal- 
estine Exploration  Survey  Fund  have  brought  to  light  much 
that  was  hitherto  unknown  in  reference  to  the  ancient  Pool  of 
Siloam  and  its  surroundings.  The  modern  pool — fifty-three 
feet  long  by  eighteen  wide — has  been  found  to  be  a  contraction 
within  the  limits  of  the  original  basin,  which  was  almost  square. 

As  restored,  it  measures  seventy-five  feet  on  its  north  side  and 
seventy-one  on  the  west.  Close  to  its  western  wall,  the  greater 

1  Dr.  Bliss  in  Quarterly,  July,  '97,  p.  177. 
8  Records  of  the  Past,  second  series,  Vol.  II. 


212  The  Land  of  Israel 

part  of  which  was  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  Dr.  Bliss  uncov- 
ered an  ancient  stairway  leading  upward  toward  the  city,  which 
he  describes  as  follows  : 

The  number  of  the  steps  is  thirty-four.  They  vary  in  height  from  six 
to  nine  and  a  half  inches,  and  are  arranged  in  a  system  of  wide  and  nar- 
row treads  alternately,  the  wide  treads  from  four  feet  three  inches,  to  four 
feet  eleven  inches,  and  the  narrow  ones  from  eleven  inches  to  seventeen. 
The  main  part  of  the  stairway,  as  seen,  consists  of  steps  built  of  hard,  well- 
jointed  stones  laid  on  a  bed  of  chips  and  weak  mortar  formed  of  mud  and 
lime.  But  pushing  along  the  whole  breadth  of  the  stairway  to  the  para- 
pet wall,  we  found  that  for  ten  feet  nine  inches  from  the  scarp  the  tread 
consists  of  the  natural  rock,  well  polished  by  foot  wear.1 

Above  this  flight  of  steps  a  large  mass  of  " blockage"  was 
found,  and  beyond  this  to  the  north  a  paved  road  was  traced  for 
a  considerable  distance,  which  appears  to  be  the  continuation 
of  the  grand  stairway  from  the  Pool.  The  paved  road  and  the 
steps  were  found  to  be  of  the  same  class  of  work  and  the  gen- 
eral direction  points  to  the  entrance  in  the  south  wall  known  as 
the  Double  Gate.  On  the  north  side  of  the  enclosing  wall, 
near  the  northwest  corner,  a  pier  was  found  at  the  height  of 
twelve  feet  nine  inches  from  the  pavement  with  the  springer  of 
an  arch,  which  indicated  the  existence  of  an  arcade  at  one 
time  on  that  side  of  the  pool.  "  We  may  safely  assume,"  says 
Dr.  Bliss,  "  that  the  arcade  ran  around  the  four  sides  of  the 
pool  and  represents  the  quadriporticum,  or  four-sided  arcade 
of  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim.  .  .  .  We  have  proved  also  that 
the  built  stairway  made  use  of  a  system  of  rock-hewn  steps, 
probably  older,  and  led  to  a  court  in  front  of  the  Pool  of 
Siloam."2 

Directly  north  of  the'  present  pool  a  well-preserved  ruin  of 
an  ancient  church  was  found.  By  driving  a  series  of  tunnels 
the  outline  of  the  church  was  recovered,  but  the  superincum- 
bent mass  of  debris  and  earth  resting  upon  it  to  the  depth  of 
twelve  to  thirty  feet  was  not  removed.  The  building  with  its 

1  Quarterly,  '97,  p.  13.  'Quarterly  Report,  Jan'y,  '97,  p.  16. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  213 

appendages  was  found  to  be  115  feet  in  length  by  100  in 
breadth.  Its  south  aisle  was  built  over  the  north  arcade  of  the  an- 
cient pool.  Along  its  west  wall  in  some  places  the  steps  of  the 
great  stairway  were  irregularly  broken  off  to  make  room  for  it, 
while  at  other  places  they  were  buried  beneath  the  level 
of  the  flooring.  This  displacement  clearly  indicates  that 
the  steps  were  older  than  the  wall  of  the  church.  There 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  church  belongs  to  the  By- 
zantine period :  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  built  by  the 
Empress  Eudosia. 

The  enlarged  pool,  which  Dr.  Bliss  has  thus  recovered 
piece  by  piece,  is,  without  doubt,  the  Biblical  Pool  of  Siloam. 
Its  genuineness  has  been  attested  by  several  lines  of  evidence 
and,  it  is  safe  to  say,  that  no  site  in  or  about  Jerusalem  has  fur- 
nished so  many  interesting  mementos  of  the  past  or  has  been 
more  certainly  identified. 

The  paved  street  and  the  majestic  flight  of  stone  steps,  with 
evidences  of  older  foot  wear  on  the  rock  beneath,  suggest  "  the 
stairs  that  go  down  from  the  city  of  David  "  (Neh.  iii.  15)  ;  as 
well  as  the  way  of  descent  by  which  the  blind  man  reached  its 
healing  waters  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  Jesus.  (John  ix. 
7.)  It  was  from  this  same  pool  also,  that  water  was  brought 
in  a  golden  pitcher  on  the  "last,  great  day  of  the  feast  "  (of 
Tabernacles),  and  poured  out  on  the  Altar  of  sacrifice  amid 
the  shouts  of  the  rejoicing  multitude.  (John  vii.  37.) 

South  of  the  Pool  of  Siloam  is  a  large  reservoir  constructed 
by  building  a  dam  across  the  valley.  It  is  known  as  the  ' '  Old 
Pool "  and  is  connected  with  the  upper  basin  by  a  channel  cut 
in  the  rock.  It  seems  to  have  been  constructed  mainly  with 
the  view  to  the  irrigation  of  the  gardens  in  the  broad  valley 
below.  The  waters  which  glided  down  this  rock-hewn  chan- 
nel and  were  parted  hither  and  thither  to  gladden  and  refresh 
the  King's  gardens,  might  well  be  described  as  "  the  waters  of 
Shiloah  that  go  softly."  (Isa.  viii.  6.)  "It  seems  probable," 
says  Colonel  Wilson,  "  that  the  lower  Pool  of  Siloam  is  the 
mikvah  (ditch,  R.  v.,  reservoir)  which  Hezekiah  made  *  between 


214  The  Land  of  Israel 

the  two  walls  for  the  water  of  the  old  pool.'  (Isa.  xxii.  n.) 
Thus  the  construction  of  the  Siloam  tunnel,  and  of  the  great 
dam  examined  by  Dr.  Bliss,  would  be  due  to  Hezekiah.  Pos- 
sibly the  rock-hewn  steps  may  have  been  connected  with  '  the 
way  of  the  gate  between  the  two  walls  which  is  by  the  King's 
Garden.'  '  (2  Kings  xxv.  4;  Jer.  Hi.  7.)  l 

Bir  Eyub,  or  the  Well  of  Job,  is  almost  directly  south  of  the 
Pool  of  Siloam,  a  little  below  the  Junction  of  the  valleys  of 
Hinnom  and  Kedron.  It  is  a  shaft  sunk  through  the  limestone 
rock  to  a  depth  of  125  feet.  It  is  not  a  natural  spring  head, 
but  collects  its  water  supply  from  the  surface  and  underground 
streams,  which  descend  from  the  higher  elevations  and  con- 
verge at  this  point.  Bir  Eyub  was  formerly  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  En  Rogel,  but  recent  investigations, — as  already 
intimated, — have  shown  that  this  designation  belongs  of  right 
to  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin. 

In  the  valley  of  Hinnom  there  are  two  large  reservoirs  known 
as  the  Mamilla  Pool  (Birket  Mamilla)  and  the  Sultan's  Poo\, 
(Birket  es  Sultan).  The  first  lies  in  the  upper  basin  of  the 
valley,  a  little  to  the  northwest  of  the  Jaffa  Gate.  It  is  partly 
hewn  out  of  the  rock,  its  sides  being  walled  with  stone  and 
cement.  Its  dimensions  are  291  x  192x19  feet.  This  reservoir 
supplies  the  Pool  of  Hezekiah  (Amygdalon)  by  means  of  a  con- 
duit which  passes  under  the  city  wall. 

The  second  or  lower  pool  is  near  the  southwest  angle  of  the 
wall.  It  is  the  largest  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  the  dimen- 
sions being  600  x  250  x  35  feet.  It  was  formed  by  building  a 
dam  across  the  valley.  It  is  now  broken  and  in  ruins.  Colonel 
Wilson  suggests  that  its  only  use  could  have  been  the  irrigation 
of  the  gardens  lower  down  in  the  valley.  These  reservoirs 
have  been  frequently  called  the  Upper  and  Lower  Pools  of 
Gihon,  but  the  lower  one  is  apparently  of  modern  construction, 
and  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  in  favor  of  this  identifica- 
tion. 

1  Quarterly  Statement,  Oct.,  '97,  p.  248. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  215 

Water  Supply  from  the  South.— The  remains  of  two 
great  conduits,  which  in  former  times  furnished  an  abundant 
supply  of  pure  mountain  water  to  the  city  and  its  temple  courts, 
can  still  be  traced  in  almost  continuous  course  from  the  hills 
south  of  Bethlehem.  These  have  been  designated  as  the  Low- 
level  and  High-level  aqueducts. 

The  first  is  connected  with  the  Pools  of  Solomon  near  the 
head  of  Wady  Urtas.  These  reservoirs,  three  in  number,  are 
supplied  by  surface  drainage  and  a  notable  spring,  flowing  from 
an  enclosed  rock  chamber,  known  as  the  sealed  fountain.  A 
farther  source  of  supply  was  utilized  by  constructing  a  channel 
from  Wady  Arub,  in  which  were  several  copious  springs  of 
water.  The  measurements  of  Solomon's  Pools,  as  given  by 
Doctor  Robinson,  are  as  follows  :  Lower  Pool,  582x207x50 
feet;  Middle,  423 x  230x39;  Upper,  380 x  226x25.  Acopi- 
ou  sstream  of  clear,  sparkling  water  is  still  carried  to 
Bethlehem  from  these  pools,  and  the  expenditure  of  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  money  would  suffice  to 
repair  the  aqueduct  along  the  whole  line  and  once  more 
give  to  Jerusalem  an  abundant  water  supply. 

The  total  length  of  the  Low-level  aqueduct  is  about  fourteen 
miles.  From  its  starting  point  to  the  city  it  has  a  fall  of 
thirty-two  feet.  It  crosses  the  valley  of  Hinnom  a  little  below 
the  Sultan's  pool  on  several  pointed  arches,  and,  winding 
around  the  southeast  slopes  of  Mount  Zion,  terminates  at  length 
in  the  great  reservoirs  of  the  Temple  area.  "  The  waste  over- 
flow appears  to  have  passed  through  one  of  the  passages  dis- 
covered by  M.  de  Saulcy,  beneath  the  Triple  Gate  into  the  main 
drain  on  the  eastern  hill,  which  discharged  itself  into  the 
Kedron  valley." 

The  High-level  aqueduct  is  a  marvel  of  engineering  skill. 
It  entered  Jerusalem  at  an  elevation  of  100  feet  above  the  Low- 
level  aqueduct,  and  delivered  its  water  supply  to  every  part  of 
the  city.  Its  farthest  source  of  supply  was  a  fountain  issuing 
from  a  subterranean  chamber  sixty  or  seventy  feet  beneath  the 
bed  of  a  valley,  south  of  Solomon's  Pools  (Wady  Byar).  The 


216  The  Land  of  Israel 

following  description  of  the  course  of  this  remarkable  conduit, 
is  given  by  Sir  Charles  Wilson  : 

From  this  chamber  a  well-constructed  channel  cut  in  the  rock  and  vary- 
ing from  five  to  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  leads  up  the  valley  for  some 
distance  until  it  terminates  in  a  natural  cleft  of  the  rock.  A  similar  chan- 
nel follows  the  bed  of  the  valley,  downward  for  more  than  four  miles, 
until  it  issues  from  the  ground  near  a  solid  dam  of  masonry  which  extends 
right  across  the  valley.  This  great  tunnel,  to  facilitate  the  construction 
of  which  several  shafts  from  sixty  to  seventy  feet  deep  were  sunk  in  the 
bed  of  the  valley,  was  intended  to  catch  the  flood  water  of  the  valley,  the 
dam  being  probably  made  to  retain  the  water  or  prevent  its  running  off 
before  it  had  filtered  down  to  the  channel.  .  .  .  About  600  yards  be- 
low the  dam  the  conduit  enters  another  tunnel  1,700  feet  long,  which  at 
one  point  is  1 15  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Eleven  shafts  were 
sunk  to  aid  the  work  of  excavation,  and  the  passage  is  in  places  fourteen 
feet  high.  After  passing  through  the  tunnel  the  conduit  winds  around  the 
hill  to  the  valley  in  which  the  Pools  of  Solomon  lie.  It  then  crosses  that 
valley  above  the  upper  pool  in  an  underground  channel  which  tapped  the 
Sealed  Fountain,  and  formerly  brought  it,  with  its  own  waters  to  the  high 
level  in  Jerusalem.  After  leaving  the  pools  the  aqueduct  at  first  runs 
along  the  side  of  the  valley  of  Urtas,  but  at  a  point  not  far  from  Bethle- 
hem it  enters  a  tank,  and  thence,  when  perfect,  carried  the  water  over  the 
valley  near  Rachel's  Tomb  by  means  of  an  inverted  syphon.  This  syphon 
was  about  two  miles  long,  and  consisted  of  perforated  blocks  of  stone  set 
in  a  mass  of  rubble  masonry  some  three  feet  thick  all  round.  The  tube 
is  eleven  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  joints,  which  appear  to  have  been 
ground  or  turned,  are  put  together  with  an  extremely  hard  cement.  The 
whole  work  is  a  remarkable  specimen  of  ancient  engineering  skill,  and 
the  labor  bestowed  upon  the  details  excites  the  admiration  of  all  travellers. 
On  approaching  Jerusalem  all  trace  of  the  conduit  is  lost.  It  has  evi- 
dently been  destroyed  during  one  of  the  many  sieges,  and  the  point  at 
which  it  entered  the  city  is  still  uncertain.  The  most  interesting  feature, 
however,  is  that  the  supply  was  brought  to  Jerusalem  at  an  elevation  of 
twenty  feet  over  the  sill  of  the  Jaffa  Gate,  and  that  the  conduit  would 
have  been  able  to  deliver  water  to  the  highest  part  of  the  city,  and  so 
provide  an  adequate  supply  for  the  whole  population.1 

8.    The  Jaffa  Suburb. — This  represents  the  largest  addition 
to  the  modern  city  outside  the  walls.     It  lies  to  the  west  of  the 
>Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  L,  p.  115. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  217 

northwest  quarter  and  has  grown  very  rapidly  in  recent  years. 
To  the  cluster  of  Russian  buildings,  which  a  short  time  ago 
stood  alone,  there  have  been  added  an  imposing  collection  of 
schools,  hospitals,  consulates,  orphanages  and  residences  of 
various  styles,  surrounded  by  fruitful  gardens,  orchards  and 
olive-yards.  Other  extensions  have  been  made  along  the  Beth- 
lehem road  and  on  the  north.  The  terminal  Station  on  the 
railroad  from  Jaffa  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
near  the  Bethlehem  road.  The  German  Colony  of  the  Temple, 
named  Rephaim  from  the  plain  on  which  it  is  situated,  the  New 
Leper's  Hospital  and  the  large  Jewish  Hospital  founded  by  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore,  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  railway 
station.  The  present  population  of  Jerusalem,  including  this 
overflow  in  the  suburbs,  is  about  60,000.  It  is  estimated  that 
about  40,000  of  this  number  are  Jews. 

9.  Southern  'Wall  of  Ancient  Jerusalem. — One  of  the 
most  interesting  results  of  the  explorations  conducted  by  Sir 
Charles  Warren  is  the  recovery  of  a  portion  of  the  ancient  wall 
on  the  eastern  brow  of  Ophel.  This  wall,  which  had  been  en- 
tirely covered  with  debris,  joined  the  Haram  wall  at  the  south- 
east angle,  but  was  evidently  of  later  construction  and  of  dif- 
ferent materials.  It  was  traced  for  a  distance  of  nearly  800 
feet  and  was  found  to  be  fourteen  feet  six  inches  thick  at  its 
base,  and  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  height.  The  terminus 
reached  was  at  a  point  near  a  rocky  knoll,  where  the  stone  had 
probably  been  removed  for  building  purposes.  Several  towers 
were  unearthed  along  the  line  of  the  wall,  one  of  which  meas- 
ured eighty  feet  in  breadth,  sixty-six  in  height  and  projected 
beyond  it  for  a  distance  of  forty  feet.  This  accords  with  the 
position  of  "the  tower  that  lieth  out"  to  which  reference  is 
made  in  the  book  of  Nehemiah  (iii.  25). 

The  general  direction  of  the  wall,  as  far  as  traced,  indicated 
a  line  of  defence  which  included  the  entire  ridge  of  Ophel. 

On  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Zion  an  exposed  scarp,  south 
of  the  present  wall,  suggested  the  existence  of  a  lower  and 


218  The  Land  of  Israel 

older  wall,  but  its  general  direction  and  the  extent  of  the  slope 
that  it  included  were  not  known.  In  1875  Henry  Maudsley, 
R.  E.,  traced  the  scarp  of  this  wall  continuously,  for  over  650 
feet,  from  the  southwest  angle  to  the  eastern  limit  of  the  en- 
closure which  contained  the  English  School  and  Cemetery. 

At  this  point,  in  the  spring  of  1894,  Doctor  Bliss,  under 
direction  of  the  Survey  Fund,  began  his  work  of  excavation. 
This  work  was  prosecuted  with  slight  interruptions  for  three 
years.  Its  results,  briefly  summarized,  are  : 

i  st.  The  tracing  of  the  wall  from  the  Protestant  Cemetery 
"with  more  or  less  interruption,  but  always  the  same  wall,  to  a 
point  just  outside  and  south  of  the  lower  pool  of  Siloam."  The 
distance  of  this  traced,  or  inferred,  wall  is  2,420  feet,  or  a  little 
short  of  half  a  mile.  The  ridge  along  which  it  was  found  to 
run  is,  in  fact,  the  extreme  possible  position  southward  for  a 
line  of  defence.  At  its  southwest  angle  it  was  370  feet  south 
of  the  present  wall  and  at  its  southeast  angle  the  distance  was 
2,010  feet. 

2d.  The  discovery  of  another  wall  of  later  date,  which  at 
some  points  kept  close  to  the  older  wall,  or  was  built  over  its 
ruins,  and  at  others  was  so  distinct  that  it  could  be  readily 
traced  alongside  of  it.  In  a  condensed  report  Dr.  Bliss  gives 
the  results  of  his  discoveries  along  these  lines,  as  follows : 

On  the  upper  wall  were  found  five  towers ;  on  the  lower,  four,  two 
of  them  very  beautifully  built.  Two  gates  were  found  at  the  southwest 
and  southeast  angles  of  the  city  respectively.  Both  gates  have  super- 
imposed door-sills,  indicating  three  periods ;  the  sockets,  bolt-holes,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  lower  gate,  door-jambs  are  clearly  seen.  Under  both 
gates  large  drains  pass.  The  wall  was  found  at  greatly  varying  depths. 
At  one  point  its  ruined  top  was  so  near  the  surface  that  the  fellah  had 
often  struck  his  plough  against  it,  while  the  rock  is  only  six  feet  below 
the  surface.  At  another  point  the  rock  is  forty-eight  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, and  towering  above  it  the  wall  was  found  still  standing  to  a  height 
of  forty-five  feet.  The  masonry  ranged  from  the  rudest  foundation  rubble 
to  exquisitely  jointed  and  finished  work.  There  are  good  reasons  to  sup- 
pose that  the  lower  wall  is  Jewish. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  219 

Firstly.  The  dtbris  separating  it  from  the  upper  wall  indicates  a  time 
when  no  city  wall  ran  along  this  line,  and  points  to  an  interruption  in  the 
city's  history  like  that  which  occurred  after  the  destruction  by  Titus. 
The  upper  wall  would  then  be  Roman  or  Christian. 

Secondly.  The  pottery  found  along  the  base  of  the  lower  wall  is  al- 
most exclusively  Jewish,  while  that  at  higher  levels  is  Roman.  The 
lengths  of  the  pieces  of  this  wall  actually  traced  amount  to  a  quarter  of  a 
mile.  The  united  lengths  of  our  shafts  and  trenches  amount  to  over  a 
mile  and  a  quarter.1 

3d.  At  the  southwest  corner  of  the  old  Pool  of  Siloam  a 
wall  was  found,  diverging  from  the  main  line,  which  ran  in  a 
northwesterly  direction  up  the  west  bank  of  the  Tyropceon 
valley.  This  was  traced  to  a  point  some  distance  beyond  the 
upper  Pool.  In  the  search  for  the  continuation  of  this  wall  the 
great  stairway,  the  enlarged  Pool,  and  the  ancient  church  were 
discovered.  Beyond  this  point  no  trace  of  the  wall  could  be 
found.  The  probability  is  that  the  material  used  in  its  con- 
struction had  been  carried  away  to  rebuild  other  structures. 

4th.  In  addition  to  the  stairway,  original  pool,  and  Byzan- 
tine church,  already  mentioned,  a  broad,  paved  street  with  a 
drain  below  it  was  traced  for  a  considerable  distance  north  of 
the  Pool.  Its  general  direction  was  down  the  Tyropoeon  val- 
ley and  Dr.  Bliss  regards  it  as  almost  certain  that  it  had  its 
terminus  in  a  gate  discovered  by  him  in  the  ancient  wall  that 
includes  the  Pool  within  the  city.  "  The  key  of  the  situation," 
he  says,  "is  the  street.  This  street  is  very  plainly  older  than 
the  Byzantine  church,  because  the  church  is  built  over  it.  The 
drain  we  traced  very  much  further  than  the  street,  because  the 
latter  was  in  a  ruined  condition.  This  drain  when  last  seen 
was  pointing  almost  directly  toward  Robinson's  Arch,  under 
which  Sir  Charles  Warren  discovered  a  Mosaic  pavement, 
whose  large  polished  stones  correspond  to  the  huge  paving 
stones  ten  by  six  feet,  which  we  discovered  along  our  street. 
We  appear  thus  to  have  a  line  of  road  from  Robinson's  Arch 
i  Quarterly  P.  E.  F., '96,  p.  234. 


The  Land  of  Israel 

to  our  gate,  which  I  think  can  be  identified  with  the  Fountain 
Gate  of  Scripture."  l 

5th.  Dr.  Bliss  has  found  by  a  series  of  excavations  begin- 
ning at  the  gate,  which  he  identifies  with  the  Fountain  Gate, 
that  the  wall  took  a  northeasterly  direction  including  the  Old 
Pool,  as  well  as  the  Upper  Pool,  and  that  its  terminus  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Tyropoeon  valley  points  to  the  wall  found  by 
Warren,  which  ran  in  a  southwest  direction  from  the  corner  o. 
the  Temple  area.  It  should  be  added  also  that  careful  search 
was  made  for  a  wall  north  of  the  Pool  of  Siloam  along  the  line 
of  the  paved  street,  but  no  indication  of  either  wall  or  gate  was 
found.  //  follows  from  the  accumulation  of  evidences  fur- 
nished by  this  series  of  excavations,  that  all  the  available  por- 
tions of  the  slopes  of  Zion  and  Ophel,  including  the  upper  and 
lower  pools,  were  within  the  walls  of  the  ancient  city  in  the 
time  of  its  greatest  enlargement.  The  Honorary  Secretary  of 
the  Fund,  Walter  Besant,  has  admirably  summed  up  the  re- 
sults of  the  excavations  in  and  about  Jerusalem,  in  the  following 
statement : 

"  Our  researches — one  says  it  with  pardonable  pride — have 
restored  the  splendors  of  the  Holy  City.  We  have  proved  how 
the  vast  walls  of  the  Temple — the  grandest  enclosure  of  the 
finest  building  in  the  whole  world — rose  from  deep  valleys  on 
three  sides  presenting  a  long  facade  of  wall  crowned  with  pillars 
and  porticoes,  and  how  within  them  rose  the  gleaming  white 
marbles  of  the  Inner  House  with  its  courts  and  altars  and 
its  crowds  of  priests  who  lived  by  the  altar.  Our  researches 
have  shown  the  inner  valley  bridged  by  noble  arches  and 
pierced  by  subterranean  passages.  They  have  shown  the  city 
provided  with  a  magnificent  water  supply,  glorious  with  its 
palaces,  its  gardens,  its  citadel,  its  castle,  its  courts  and  its  villas. 
It  is  a  great  town  that  we  have  restored  ;  not  a  commercial  town, 
but  a  great  religious  centre  to  which,  at  the  Passover  season, 
more  than  2,000,000  people  brought  their  offerings."  2 

1  Quarterly  Report,  Oct.,  '97,  p.  255.        »  The  City  and  the  Land,  p.  1 18. 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  221 

History  and  Associations. — The  story  of  this  mountain 
city,  which  for  nearly  forty  centuries  has  occupied  a  position 
of  commanding  importance,  has  a  large  place  in  modern  liter- 
ature and  is  interlinked  with  the  history  of  all  the  leading 
nations  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  Much  that  relates  to  it 
has  been  already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  description 
of  the  Land  as  a  whole,  and  the  closer  study  of  the  several  lo- 
calities in  and  about  Jerusalem,  as  they  have  come  in  turn  be- 
fore us.  It  will  suffice  for  our  present  purpose,  therefore,  to 
indicate  merely  the  distinguishing  features  of  this  history ;  and 
to  call  attention  to  some  points  of  special  interest  which  recent 
discoveries  and  investigations  have  enabled  us  to  see  more 
clearly. 

There  seem  to  have  been  three  distinct  periods  in  the  history 
of  Jerusalem  before  the  time  of  Christ.  The  first  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  Early  Canaanite  period,  the  second  as  the  Jebusite 
and  the  third  as  the  Jewish.  In  the  first  it  comes  into  view  as 
the  royal  city  of  Melchizedek  and  was  known  as  Salem  or  the 
city  of  Salem  ("  City  of  Peace  ").  Its  courtly  Ruler,  who  met 
Abraham  in  the  King's  Dale,  when  "  returning  from  the  slaugh- 
ter of  the  Kings,  and  blessed  him,"  was  a  King-priest  and  is 
represented  as  a  worshipper  of  the  Most  High  God.  (Gen.  xiv. 
18  ;  Heb.  vii.  1-3.)  In  this  record,  and  again  in  Psalm  Ixxvi. 
2  the  city  is  called  Salem.  In  the  Egyptian  records  which 
enumerate  the  conquests  of  Rameses  II.  in  Canaan,  Professor 
Sayce  finds  the  same  name — Shalam — along  with  Gaza  and 
other  ancient  towns.  The  strongest  confirmation  of  the  Scrip- 
ture narrative,  however,  is  found  in  the  Tell  Amarna  tablets 
which  transmit  the  old  name  Uru-Salim,  in  form  almost  identi- 
cal with  its  familiar  modern  name,  and  give  the  long  lost  clue 
to  its  derivation.  These  records  antedate  the  exodus  by  a 
period  of  about  1 20  years.  It  is  thus  made  evident  by  three 
distinct  lines  of  proof  that  the  old  name  of  the  city  was  not 
Jebus,  as  has  been  frequently  affirmed,  but  Salem  or  Uru- 
Salem.  There  is  also  a  very  remarkable  parallelism  between 


222  The  Land  of  Israel 

the  declaration  of  the  Ruler  of  Uru-Salem  and  the  King  who 
met  Abraham.  Says  Professor  Sayce  "  The  description  given 
of  Melchizedek  in  Genesis  is  precisely  that  which  Ebed-tob 
gives  of  himself,  with  this  difference  that  whereas  Ebed-tob 
was  the  tributary  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  Melchizedek  was 
still  an  independent  sovereign." 

When  Joshua  entered  the  land,  about  160  years  after 
the  date  of  the  Tell  Amarna  inscriptions,  Jerusalem  was  the 
noted  stronghold  of  the  Jebusites,  and  was  then  designated  as 
Jebus.  The  old  name,  however  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
forgotten,  for  in  the  book  of  Joshua  it  is  referred  to  as  "Jebus 
which  is  Jerusalem."  (Josh,  xviii.  28.)  A  similar  expression 
is  found  in  Judges  xix.  10.  The  men  of  Judah  captured  the 
lower  city  of  the  Jebusites  and  set  it  on  fire,  but  they  could 
not  drive  out  the  defenders  from  the  stronghold  of  the  upper 
city.  (Josh.  xv.  63;  Judg.  i.  21.)  This  portion  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  Jebusites  until  David  took  it  by  assault  and 
made  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  The  city  as  a  whole  was 
frequently  called  Zion  at  a  later  period.  From  this  time  on- 
ward Jerusalem  was  the  capital  of  the  Hebrew  nation  and  the 
Divinely-established  centre  of  its  religious  life  and  worship. 

In  the  period  which  elapsed  between  its  capture  by  the  men 
of  Judah  and  its  final  overthrow  by  the  Roman  general  Titus, 
Jerusalem  was  besieged  seventeen  times.  Twice  it  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  on  other  occasions  the  walls  on  the  north  were 
broken  down.  Its  after  history  is  a  succession  of  desolations 
and  restorations  of  a  similar  character  up  to  the  year  1 244, 
when  it  was  besieged  for  the  last  time  by  the  Kharezmian 
hordes  who  plundered  it  and  slaughtered  its  Christian  inhabit- 
ants. 

This  is  reckoned  as  the  twenty-seventh  siege  of  Jerusalem. 
There  is  no  parallel  to  this  record  of  vicissitudes  in  the  history 
of  any  city  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  It  has  experienced 
all  the  judgments  uttered  against  it  by  its  own  prophets  to  the 
full:  and  yet  despite  all  these  calamities,  its  spiritual  associa- 


Jerusalem  and  its  Environs  223 

tions  have  invested  it  with  a  peculiar  sanctity  and  glory,  even 
in  its  ruined  estate,  that  attaches  to  no  other  city  on  earth. 
"If  it  had  existed  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  years  when  overthrown  by  Titus,  as  stated  by  Josephus, 
its  age  at  present  is  not  less  than  four  thousand  years.  More 
than  any  other  city  it  has  influenced  the  moral  and  religious 
character  of  the  human  race — and  the  end  is  not  yet"  l 

1  Land  and  Book,  p.  567. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   MOUNTAINS   OF  JUDAH 

THIS  portion  of  the  range  increases  in  elevation,  as  it  ex- 
tends southward,  until  it  culminates  in  the  heights  of  Er 
Ramah,  directly  north  of  Hebron,  3,546  feet  above  the  sea. 
From  this  point  the  elevation  falls  away  gradually  or  by  a 
series  of  steps,  until  it  merges,  at  length,  into  the  lower  levels 
of  the  Negeb,  or  South  Country.  The  border  line  between  the 
Negeb  and  the  Hill  country  cannot  be  definitely  placed,  but 
in  general  it  was  the  base  or  southern  limit  of  the  Judean 
range  proper,  not  including  its  lower  slopes  and  rolling  downs. 
Its  western  boundary  was  the  irregular  depression  between  the 
main  range  and  the  Shephelah :  its  eastern  was  the  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea. 

The  characteristic  features  of  this  mountain  tract  correspond 
with  those  already  given  in  the  description  of  the  Mountains  of 
Benjamin.  To  this  we  add  a  very  striking  and  life-like  sketch 
by  Dr.  G.  A.  Smith : 

Where  the  plateau  rolls,  the  shadeless  slopes  are  for  the  most  part  di- 
vided between  brown  scrub  and  grey  rock ;  the  hollows  are  stony  fields 
traversed  by  dry  torrent-beds  of  dirty  boulders  and  gashed  clay.  Where 
the  plateau  breaks,  low  ridge  and  shallow  glen  are  formed,  and  the  ridge 
is  often  crowned  by  a  village,  of  which  the  grey  stone  walls  and  mud 
roofs  look  from  the  distance  like  a  mere  outcrop  of  the  rock ;  yet  round 
them,  or  below  in  the  glen,  there  will  be  olive-groves,  figs,  and  perhaps  a 
few  terraces  of  vines.  Some  of  these  breaks  in  the  table-land  are  very 
rich  in  vegetation,  as  at  Bethany,  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  the  Gardens  of 
Solomon  and  other  spots  round  Bethlehem,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Hebron,  the  famous  vale  of  Eshcol  or  Vine  Cluster.  And  again  between 
Hebron  and  the  wilderness  there  are  nine  miles  by  three  of  plateau, 
where  the  soil  is  almost  free  from  stones,  and  the  fair,  red  and  green 

224 


/Jfiffibii?  M 


THE   WILDERNESS   OF  JUDEA 


The  Mountains  of  Judah  225 

fields,  broken  by  a  few  heathy  mounds,  might  be  a  scene  of  upland 
agriculture  in  our  own  country.1 

It  is  evident  from  this  description  that  the  Hill  country  of 
Judah  is  a  pastoral  land,  and  that  its  principal  fruits  are  the 
fig,  the  olive  and  the  vine.  "A  vineyard  on  'a  hill  of  olives,' 
with  the  '  fence,'  and  '  the  stones  gathered  out,'  and  '  the  tower 
in  the  midst  of  it,'  is  the  natural  figure  which,  both  in  the 
prophetical  and  evangelical  records,  represent  the  kingdom  of 
Judah."  2  In  the  springtime  the  one  ever  present  relief  to  the 
otherwise  desolate-looking  landscape  is  the  abundance  of  deli- 
cate, richly-tinted  wild  flowers,  which  grow  everywhere  along- 
side the  rocks,  amid  ruined  heaps  or  are  closely  intertwined 
with  dense  tangles  of  undergrowth  and  vine. 

The  Jeshimon  or  Wilderness  of  Judea  is  a  barren,  un- 
inhabited region  which  well  accords  with  its  name.  It  includes 
the  whole  of  the  eastern  slope  or  declivity  of  the  mountain 
ridge  from  the  head  to  the  foot  of  the  Dead  Sea.  "Every- 
where it  is  steep  and  sometimes  precipitous  and  is  often  cleft  to 
its  base  by  the  deep  valleys  or  gorges  that  issue  from  the  moun- 
tain. All  is  irregular  and  wild ;  presenting  scenes  of  savage 
grandeur."  From  several  of  the  deep  rugged  chasms,  which 
lie  below  the  fields  of  Bethlehem,  it  would  be  easy  to  select  a 
typical  "  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,"  such  as  impressed  the 
mind  of  David  when  he  kept  his  father's  sheep,  (i.  Sam. 
xvii.  15,  28,  34;  Ps.  xxiii.  4.)  Through  all  the  centuries  in 
which  it  has  been  known  to  history,  this  has  been  a  wild,  un- 
cultivated region,  save  in  a  few  spots;  given  over  to  wild 
beasts,  to  hermits,  and  to  outlaws  in  hiding  ;  or  to  wandering 
shepherds  and  herdsmen.  Into  this  "land  not  inhabited  "  the 
scapegoat  was  "led  by  the  hand  of  a  fit  man,"  after  the  in- 
iquities of  the  people  had  been  "confessed  and  put  upon  his 
head."  (Lev.  xvi.  21,  22.)  In  this  wilderness  John  the  Bap- 
tist sought  seclusion  from  the  world  for  a  time  while  preparing 

*  Hist.  Geog./p.  306.  *  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  230. 

Phys.  Geog.,  p.  33. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


for  his  mission  as  the  Forerunner  of  the  coming  Messiah .  and 
on  its  outskirts  he  began  to  preach,  saying  :  "  Prepare  ye  the 
way  of  the  Lord,  make  His  paths  straight."  (Matt.  iii.  1-6; 
Luke  iii.  2.)  Somewhere,  also,  amid  these  dreary  wastes  the  Son 
of  man  withstood  the  subtle  temptations  of  the  Evil  One ;  and 
here,  when  the  long  trial  had  issued  in  victory,  the  angels 
found  Him  in  His  exhausted  state,  and  ministered  unto  Him. 
(Matt.  iv.  i— n;  Mark  i.  12,  13.) 

The  principal  Wadies  on  the  east  side  are  the  Wady  en 
Nar  down  which  the  waters  of  the  Kedron  flow  to  the  Dead 
Sea  and  Wady  el  Ghar,  or  Areijah,  running  from  the  wilderness 
of  Tekoa  to  the  oasis  at  Engedi.  .  .  .  There  are  possibly 
a  score  of  deep  gorges  besides,  but  they  are  in  the  flank  of  the 
mountain  ridge  only  and  do  not  afford  continuous  passage-ways 
to  its  summit.  On  the  western  side  are  the  tributaries  of  the 
Wadies  Surar,  Es  Sunt,  and  Afranj,  already  mentioned. 

Forty-four  cities,  including  those  in  the  wilderness,  are 
enumerated  in  the  description  of  this  mountain  heritage  of 
Judah  in  the  book  of  Joshua  (xv.  48-62).  Many  of  these 
had  outlying  villages.  "It  is  impossible,"  says  Canon  Tris- 
tram, "  to  wander  among  these  hills  without  perceiving  that  the 
expression,  'her  towns,'  applied  in  the  enumeration  to  many 
of  the  cities,  was  no  mere  figure  of  speech.  The  groups  of 
ruins,  '  the  desolate  heaps  '  of  Judah,  far  outnumber  any  cata- 
logue of  her  cities  that  has  come  down  to  us."  l 

The  following  list  comprises  the  most  important  of  the  sites 
which  have  been  identified. 

i.  Kirjath  Jearim. — The  site  formerly  proposed  for  this 
border  city  was  Kuriet  el  Anab,  better  known  as  the  town  of 
Abu  Ghosh,  on  the  road  to  Ramleh  from  Jerusalem  by  way  of 
Wady  Ali.  This  place  is  now  regarded  as  identical  with  Kir- 
jath of  Benjamin :  and  Kirjath  Jearim  has  been  satisfactorily 
identified,  by  the  Survey  party,  with  a  ruin  farther  to  the  south 
called  Khurbet  'Erma.  It  is  on  a  ridge  thickly  covered  with 
1  Holy  Land,  p.  55. 


The  Mountains  of  Judah  227 

undergrowth  on  the  south  side  of  the  ravine  which  leads  down 
to  the  valley  of  Sorek.  Its  location  conforms  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  border  line  of  Judah  ;  it  being  on  the  line  indicated 
by  natural  features  between  Rachel's  sepulchre  and  the  town 
of  Beth-shemesh.  It  is  twelve  miles  from  Jerusalem  and  four 
from  Beth-shemesh. 

"  The  name  'Erma  corresponds  to  the  latest  form  Arim,  which  took 
the  place  of  the  original  Ya'rim  or  Jearim.  (Ezra  ii.  25.)  This  ruin  is 
distant  only  three  miles  from  the  great  valley  toward  which  it  looks  down. 
It  lies  close  to  the  border  of  the  lower  hills  and  the  high  Judean  mountains, 
and  shows  evidence  of  having  been  an  ancient  site.  Close  to  the  same 
vicinity  the  Survey  party  fixed  the  situation  of  Deir  Aban,  '  The  Convent 
of  the  Stone,'  identified  by  St.  Jerome  with  the  site  of  Ebenezer,  « The 
Stone  of  Help,'  which  Samuel  erected  to  commemorate  the  great  victory 
over  the  Philistines.  (I  Sam.  vii.  12.)  Its  situation  seems  to  render  the 
traditional  view  not  improbably  correct,  for  the  village  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  great  valley,  down  which  undoubtedly  the  Philistine  hosts 
were  driven."  * 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  brought  from  Beth-shemesh  to 
Kirjath  Jearim  where  it  remained  until  it  was  removed  to  Jeru- 
salem by  David,  (i  Sam.  vii.  i,  2;  2  Sam.  vi.  1-17;  Ps. 
cxxxii.  6.)  "After  being  twenty  years  neglected,  the  ark  was 
sought  for  in  a  time  of  religious  revival  (chap,  vii.),  and  a 
place,  doubtless  prepared  for  it  '  on  the  hill. '  Just  such  a 
levelled  platform  as  remains  at  Shiloh  has  been  found  at  Khur- 
bet  'Erma."3 

2.  Emmaus  has  been  recently  identified  with  a  ruined 
village,  in  a  well-watered  valley,  called  Khamasa,  an  altered 
form  of  the  Hebrew  word  Hammath  or  Emmaus.  It  is  eight 
miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem.  There  is  a  cluster  of  springs— 
five  or  more  in  number — in  the  vicinity.  An  old  Roman  road 
leads  past  it  to  the  coast-plain,  over  which  in  all  probability 
our  Lord  journeyed  with  the  two  perplexed  di  dples.  (Luke 
xxiv.  13-33.) 

i  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  119.         'Henderson's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  112. 


228 


The  Land  of  Israel 


3.  Bethlehem. — The  little  town  where  Jesus  was  born  is 
less  than  six  miles  from  the  place  where  He  was  crucified.  It 
crowns  the  summit  of  a  white  chalkstone  ridge  or  spur  which 
projects  eastward  from  the  main  range.  On  the  north,  east, 
and  south,  where  the  ridge  stands  clear  of  the  plateau,  the 
slopes  are  naturally  abrupt,  but  have  been  graded  somewhat, 
and  made  capable  of  a  high  state  of  cultivation  by  a  series  of 
broad  terraces.  These  are  covered  with  gardens,  vineyards, 
and  olive-yards.  To  the  traveller  approaching  from  the  north 
the  encircling  walls,  the  terraced  heights,  the  steep  ascent  to 
the  gate,  and  the  long  line  of  snowy-white  houses  present  a 
picture  of  rare  beauty  and  attractiveness.  Bethlehem,  or  Beit- 
Lahm  as  the  natives  call  it,  is  a  typical  upland  village  of  the 
country,  with  one  long  street,  from  which  a  few  short  streets  or 
alleys  diverge  at  irregular  intervals.  Its  identity  with  the  old 
town  at  first  known  as  Ephrath  and  afterward  Bethlehem  of 
Judah  is  unquestioned.  By  the  ridge  road  to  the  south,  less 
than  a  mile  from  the  village,  is  the  place,  still  marked  by  a 
conspicuous  tomb  where  Rachel  died  and  was  buried.  (Gen. 
xlviii.  7.)  Bethlehem  was  the  home  of  Boaz;  the  scene  of 
the  beautiful  story  of  Ruth  and  Naomi ;  and  the  birthplace  of 
David.  (Ruth,  chaps,  ii.-iv.)  And  in  this  city  of  David 
was  born,  in  "the  fullness  of  the  time,"  a  "Saviour,  which  is 
Christ  the  Lord."  (Luke  ii.  4-14.)  Below  the  terraced  slope 
directly  east  of  Bethlehem  there  is  an  open  valley,  known  as  the 
fields  of  Bethlehem,  where  Boaz  and  his  reapers  labored,  and 
where  Ruth  gleaned  after  them  among  the  sheaves.  Beyond 
this  strip  of  corn  land,  in  which  each  inhabitant  of  the  village 
has  his  little  plot  of  ground,  indicated  as  of  old,  by  the  stone 
landmark,  lies  a  large  tract  on  the  edge  of  the  wilderness. 
This  from  time  immemorial  has  been  the  common  pasturage  of 
the  shepherds  of  Bethlehem.  Here,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
wilderness  below,  David  kept  his  father's  flock,  (i  Sam.  xvi. 
n,  xvii.  28.)  While  we  do  not  know  the  exact  spot,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  somewhere  on  this  eastward  stretch  of  open  country 


The  Mountains  of  Judah 

the  shepherds  were  keeping  watch  over  their  flocks  by  night, 
when,  suddenly,  the  glory  of  the  Lord  shone  round  about  them 
and  the  angelic  message  was  proclaimed.  Between  this  ancient 
pasture  ground  and  the  stars  a  multitude  of  the  heavenly  hosts 
were  revealed  who  thrilled  the  astonished  watchers  below,  as 
they  chanted  together  the  praiseful  refrain, — "  Glory  to  God 
in  the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace,  good  will  toward  men." 
There  are  good  grounds  for  the  commonly  accepted  belief  that 
the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  village 
covers  the  site  of  the  "inn,"  or  Khan  at  Bethlehem.  It  was 
known  as  the  "  habitation,"  or  caravansary,  of  Chimham,  the 
son  of  Barzillai,  centuries  before  (Jer.  xli.  17),  and  was 
probably  the  portion  of  the  patrimony  of  David,  which  was 
given  to  him  as  a  reward  for  the  kindness  of  his  father.  (2 
Sam.  xix.  38-40;  i  Kings  ii.  7.) 

Under  the  choir  at  the  east  end  of  the  church  a  flight  of 
steps  leads  down  to  the  "grotto  of  the  Nativity."  The  tradi- 
tion which  locates  the  birthplace  of  Christ  in  this  grotto 
"  seems  to  be  credible,"  says  Major  Conder,  "  because  through- 
out this  part  of  Palestine,  there  are  innumerable  instances 
of  stables  cut  in  rock,  resembling  the  Bethlehem  grotto. 
Such  stables  I  have  planned  and  measured  at  Tekoa,  Aziz,  and 
other  places  south  of  Bethlehem,  and  the  mangers  existing  in 
them  leave  no  doubt  as  to  their  use  and  character."  l  It  is  an 
interesting  fact,  also,  that  this  is  the  oldest  Christian  tradition 
relating  to  any  sacred  site.  While  no  other  can  be  traced  back 
earlier  than  the  fourth  century,  this  concerning  the  birthplace 
of  Christ  goes  back  to  the  second.  It  rests  on  the  authority  of 
Justin  Martyr,  who  described  it  as  a  cave  near  Bethlehem,  and 
afterward  Jerome  avouched  his  belief  in  the  genuineness  of  the 
site  by  making  his  abode  in  a  grotto  close  beside  it,  where  he 
lived  and  labored  on  his  great  life-work  for  thirty  years.  Here, 
at  least,  we  may  be  sure  "  we  are  treading  on  ground  hallowed 
by  the  footsteps  of  nearly  fifty  generations  of  believers."  This 
1  Tent  Work,  p.  145. 


230  The  Land  of  Israel 

Basilica  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  building  of  its  kind  in  the 
world  :  the  date  of  its  erection  by  order  of  Constantine  being 
A.  D.  327.  The  roof  beams  were  originally  of  cedar  brought 
from  Lebanon,  but  these  were  replaced  by  beams  of  English 
oak  during  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  On  Christmas  Day  noi 
Baldwin  I.  was  crowned  as  King  of  Jerusalem  within  the  walls 
of  this  Basilica. 

The  present  population  of  Bethlehem  is  estimated  at  about 
8,000.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  Christian  villages  in 
Palestine. 

4.  The  fortified  convent  of  Mar  Saba  is  directly  east  of 
Bethlehem  in  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Kedron  valley.     It  belongs 
to  the  Greek  Church  and  has  stood  in  this  wild,  desolate  re- 
gion since  the  fifth  century.     This  curious  structure  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  the  precipitous  cliff  to  which  it  clings  : 
the  walls  being   built   up  from  ledges  or  rock  platforms  high 
above  the  level  of  the  valley,  and  supported  by  massive  but- 
tresses from  the  lower  levels  to  the  summit  of  the  cliff.     From 
one  outlook  on  the  wall  the  elevation  is  590  feet  above  the  bed 
of  the  ravine. 

5.  Jebel   Fureidis,  or  the   Frank  Mountain  as  it  -is  some- 
times called,  is  a  little  over  three  miles  southeast  of  Bethlehem. 
It  is  conspicuous  among  the  hills  of  Judah  because  of  its  isola- 
tion and  mound-like  appearance.     It  is  probably  the  beacon- 
mountain  called  Beth-haccerem,  on  which   "  the  sign  of  fire 
was  set  up"  in  times  of  invasion.     (Jer.  vi.  i.)     It  was  forti- 
fied by  Herod  the  Great  and  here  he  erected  his  summer  pal- 
ace.    It  is  also  the  place  of  his  burial. 

6.  The    traditional  Cave    of  Adullam  in  the  contracted 
part  of  the  Wady  Khureitun,  a  short  distance  from  the  Frank 
Mountain,  is  the  largest  cavern  which  has  yet  been  explored  i;i 
this  land  of  caverns  and  grottoes.     It  has  many  intricate  wind- 
ings and  communicating  chambers,  the  farthest  of  which  is 
about  600  feet  from  the  entrance.     While  capacious  enough  to 
shelter  a  much  larger  force  than  the  band  of  David's  men,  there 


The  Mountains  of  Judah  231 

is  no  good  reason  for  identifying  it  with  the  Cave  of  Adullam. 
The  probable  site  of  this  stronghold  is,  as  already  indicated, 
among  the  low  hills,  near  the  town  of  Adullam  at  the  head  of 
the  valley  of  Elah. 

7.  Etham  or  Etam,  has  been  identified  with  a  mound  of 
ruins  three  miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  at  the  head  of  the  valley 
of  Urtas,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Pools  of  Solomon. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  as  the  source  of  the  water  supply 
for  Solomon's  gardens.     It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam.     (2 
Chron.  xi.  6.)     The  Pools  of  Solomon  have  been  already  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  water  supply  of  Jerusalem.    The 
fountains  which  supply  these  pools  are  probably  identical  with 
the  waters  of  Nephtoah.     (Josh.  xv.  9.) 

8.  Tekoa  now  Tekua,  is  five  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
It  was  the  home  of  the  prophet  Amos  (Amos  i.  i),  and  also  of 
the  wise  woman  who  came  at  the  instance  of  Joab  to  plead  the 
cause  of  Absalom.     (2  Sam.  xiv.  2.) 

9.  Bether  (Cant.  ii.  17)  is  probably  represented  by  Bittir,  in  Wady 
Bittir,    five   miles  west  of  Bethlehem;    Phagor  by   Faghur,  four  miles 
south  of  Bethlehem  ;  Soris  by   Saris,  ten  miles  northwest  of  Bethlehem 
and  Galem  by  Beita  Jala,  two  miles  west  of  Bethlehem.1 

10.  Hebron  or  Kirjath-Arba,  as  it  was  originally  called,  is 
nineteen  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  at  the  head  of  a 
fertile,  well-watered  valley,  which  extends  northward  for  about 
two  miles.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  called  the  Vale  of  Hebron. 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  14.)  Its  wider  expanse  north  of  the  city  is 
known  as  the  Plain  of  Mamre,  and  all  the  indications  point  to 
this  as  the  probable  place  of  Abraham's  encampment.  It  has 
been  associated  with  the  vale  of  Eshcol  because  of  its  large  and 
flourishing  vineyards,  but  later  research  indicates  a  location 
farther  to  the  south.  In  his  description  of  this  rich  upland 
valley  Canon  Tristram  says  : 

Not  an  inch  of  space  is  lost.     Terraces,  where  the  ground  is  not  too 
rocky,  support  the  soil.     Ancient  vineyards  cling  to  the  lower  slopes ; 
1  Hend.  Geog.,  p.  86. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


olive,  mulberry,  fig,  almond,  and  pomegranate  trees  fill  every  available 
cranny  to  the  very  crest ;  while  the  bottom  of  the  valley  is  carefully  tilled 
for  corn,  carrots,  and  cauliflowers,  which  in  summer  give  place  to  a  sec- 
ond crop  of  melons  and  cucumbers.  Streamlets  of  fresh  water  trickle  on 
each  side  of  the  path.  .  .  .  About  two  miles  north  of  Hebron  is  a 
very  interesting  ruin,  now  called  Rameh  or  Ramel  said  to  be  the  ancient 
Mamre,  and  where  Abraham's  celebrated  terebinth  once  stood,  under 
which,  after  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Jews  at  Bether,  A.  D.,  135,  thou- 
sands of  captives  were  sold  as  slaves.  On  the  hill  above,  Abraham  could 
easily  have  seen  the  ascending  smoke  of  the  Cities  of  the  Plain.1 

Among  the  vineyards  of  Hebron,  a  mile  or  more  to  the  north- 
west, is  a  great  oak,  called  Abraham's  Oak.  It  measures  thirty-two 
feet  in  circumference  at  a  height  of  six  feet  from  the  ground. 
Its  leafy  crown  has  recently  been  reduced  in  size,  but  the 
branches  formerly  extended  over  an  area  in  one  direction  of 
fifty  feet,  and  of  ninety-three  in  another.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
at  least  two  or  three  centuries  old. 

Hebron  is  one  of  the  few  cities  of  Palestine  which  was  lo- 
cated in  a  valley,  and  yet  it  occupies  the  highest  ground  (3,029 
feet)  in  the  whole  sweep  of  mountain  territory  south  of  Jebel 
Jarmuk.  It  stretches  across  the  valley  from  side  to  side,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  modern  city  is  on  the  slope  of  the  east- 
ern hill.  The  most  interesting  as  well  as  the  most  conspicuous 
object  in  Hebron  is  the  Great  Mosque,  which,  without  doubt, 
covers  the  site  of  the  Cave  of  Machpelah.  It  is  a  massive 
structure  200  feet  long,  115  wide  and  its  enclosing  walls  are 
about  fifty  feet  high.  The  masonry  of  these  walls  corresponds 
with  that  portion  of  the  walls  of  the  Temple  area,  which  the 
best  authorities  regard  as  Solomonic.  One  stone  in  this  struc- 
ture measures  thirty-eight  feet  in  length  and  three  and  a  half 
in  height. 

There  are  two  ancient  reservoirs  in  the  valley  outside  the 

gate.     The  largest  of  these  is   135   feet  square  and  fifty  feet 

deep.     At  one  of    these  pools,   probably  the  largest,   David 

hanged  up  the  murderers  of  Ish-bosheth.     (2  Sam.  iv.  12.) 

1  Holy  Land,  p.  64. 


The  Mountains  of  Judah  233 

"  The  ancient  city  may  have  been  a  little  more  to  the  north- 
west, but  the  pools  as  well  as  the  Haram  fix  the  variation 
within  narrow  limits."  1 

Hebron  is  one  of  the  oldest  existing  cities  in  the  world.  It 
was  built  seven  years  before  Zoan  or  Tanis  in  Egypt.  (Num. 
xiii.  22.)  It  was  the  third-halting  place  of  Abraham  on  his 
journey  southward,  and  afterward  a  favorite  camping-place.  It 
was  also  the  abode  for  a  time  of  Isaac  and  Jacob :  and  it  was 
"out  of  the  vale  of  Hebron  "  that  Joseph  was  sent  to  deliver  a 
message  to  his  brethren.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  14.)  Here  in  turn 
the  Patriarchs  with  their  wives,  except  Rachel,  were  borne  to 
their  burial  in  the  family  sepulchre,  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
which  Abraham  bought  of  Ephron  the  Hittite.  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
'14.)  For  forty  centuries  this  spot  has  been  revered  as  the 
hallowed  resting-place  of  the  households  of  Abraham  and 
Isaac  and  also  of  the  embalmed  body  of  Jacob  which  was 
brought  hither  from  the  land  of  Egypt.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  the  bones  of  Joseph  which  were  buried  at  Shechem,  were 
afterward  brought  to  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  but  there  is  no 
intimation  of  this  in  the  Scriptures.  "The  site  of  this  cave," 
says  Major  Conder,  "  may  almost  rank  with  that  of  Jacob's  well 
and  the  Jerusalem  Temple  as  being  preserved  by  local  tradition 
dating  back  to  the  times  of  the  Jewish  kingdom  at  least."  a 

Hebron  was  a  Hittite  city  in  the  time  of  Abraham.  At  a 
later  period  it  was  a  stronghold  of  the  Anakim.  After  the  con- 
quest it  was  assigned  to  Caleb  for  an  inheritance.  (Josh.  xiv. 
10-15.)  It  was  one  °f tne  six  cities  of  refuge.  David  reigned 
in  Hebron  for  seven  and  a  half  years,  or  until  he  was  made 
the  king  of  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  v.  5  ):  and  here  Absalom  set  up 
the  standard  of  revolt.  (2  Sam.  xv.  7-12.) 

Three  towns  in  a  line  on  the  edge  of  the  Wilderness  and  one 
in  the  heart  of  the  Wilderness  itself,  have  been  made  famous 
by  their  connection  with  the  romantic  history  of  David  when 
he  was  "hunted  as  a  partridge  on  the  mountains"  by  King 

*  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  183.  »  Bible  Geog.,  p.  38. 


234  The  Land  of  Israel 

Saul,  viz :  Ziph,  Carmel,  Maon  and  Engedi.  All  of  these 
places  have  been  satisfactorily  identified. 

ix.  Ziph  is  marked  by  a  ruined  heap  which  still  bears  the 
name  Tell  Zif.  It  is  four  miles  southeast  of  Hebron. 

Major  Conder  thinks  that  the  expression  "  wood  "  (Choresh) 
of  Ziph  is  the  name  of  a  place — Choresh  of  Ziph — and  gives 
in  support  of  this  theory  the  absence  of  all  signs  of  a  forest  in 
this  region  and  the  discovery  of  the  ruins  of  a  town  called 
Khoreisa  near  Ziph.  This  he  supposes  to  be  the  place  of  meet- 
ing between  David  and  Jonathan,  (i  Sam.  xxiii.  16.) 

12.  Carmel,  now  Kurmul,  is  four  miles  south  of  Ziph.     It 
was  formerly  a  garrison  town  and  extensive  ruins  of  Roman 
days  are  intermingled  with  fragments  of  buildings  erected  by 
the  Crusaders  and  Saracens.     This  was  the  place  where  the 
churlish  Nabal  was  shearing  his  sheep  when  David  sent  to  him 
for  supplies  for  his  men.     It  was  also  the  native  place  of  Abi- 
gail, who  became  the  wife  of  David  after  the  death  of  Nabal. 
(i  Sam.  chap,  xxv.)     In  Carmel,  and  the  mountains  around, 
TJzziah  had  farms  and  vineyards  with  husbandmen  and  vine- 
dressers to  care  for  them.     (2  Chron.  xxvi.  10.) 

13.  Maon  is  represented  by  Tell  Main.     It  is  less  than  two 
miles  south  of  Carmel  on  a  higher  elevation.     It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Nabal,  a  direct  descendant  of  Caleb,  to  whom  this 
mountain  district  had  been  originally  assigned.     (Josh.  xiv.  12.) 

14.  Engedi  (Ain  Jidy).     This  name  applies  to  a  celebrated 
fountain  (Fountain  of  the  Kid)  and  also  to  a  town  below  it  near 
the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.     An  older  name  was  Hazezon- 
tamar.    (Gen.  xiv.  7 ;   2  Chron.  xx.  2.)     The  fountain  issues 
from  the  base  of  a  rock,  which  is  nearly  500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  1,500  feet  below  the  top  of  the  cliff 
that   towers  above  it.     It  is  represented  as   "bursting  forth 
amidst  an  oasis  of  tropical  vegetation  and  then  kid-like  skip- 
ping from  rock  to  rock,  until  it  reaches  the  plain  below."  *     The 
whole  of  this  district,  says   Doctor  Robinson,  was  apparently 

Palmer  in  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  193. 


The  Mountains  of  Judah  235 

once  terraced  for  tillage  and  gardens.1  The  beauty  of  this 
" sub-tropical  oasis"  is  the  more  notable  because  of  the  wild 
desolation  and  savage  grandeur  all  around  it.  Solomon  makes 
mention  of  the  camphire  in  the  vineyards  of  Engedi ;  Josephus 
of  its  balsams ;  and  Pliny  of  its  palms,  but  these  have  given 
way  to  native  plants  of  a  different  class. 2 

In  this  vicinity  "  among  the  rocks  of  the  wild  goats  "  David 
had  no  difficulty  in  finding  hiding-places  for  himself  and  his 
men.  From  one  of  these  he  issued  forth  and  cut  off  the  skirt 
of  Saul's  robe  while  he  was  sleeping  in  a  cave,  (i  Sam.  xxiv. 

3-80 

The  rugged  pass,  which  leads  down  to  Engedi  from  the 
plateau  near  Tekoa,  has  been  identified  with  the  cliff  or  ascent 
of  Ziz  by  which  the  hosts  of  Moab  and  Ammon  came,  from 
the  Dead  Sea,  to  the  plateau  near  Tekoa.  (2  Chron.  xx.  16-20.) 
The  valley  of  Berachah,  Jehoshaphat's  "  valley  of  blessing,"  is 
supposed  to  be  an  open  vale  between  Tekoa  and  the  Hebron 
road,  in  which  is  a  ruined  site  which  the  natives  called  Khur- 
bet  Bereikuh.  (2  Chron.  xx.  26.)  Engedi  has  given  its  name 
to  a  portion  of  the  wilderness  region  around  and  above  it.  The 
invading  army  from  the  East  under  Chedorlaomer  came  around 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  Engedi  where  they  smote 
the  Amorites.  (Gen.  xiv.  7.)  From  thence  to  the  northern  end 
of  the  Sea  the  only  practicable  route  would  be  by  the  ascent 
of  Ziz.  "This  pass  and  cliff,"  says  Professor  Palmer,  "have 
been  from  the  days  of  Chedorlaomer  and  Abraham,  the  one 
ascent  by  which  invaders  from  the  south  and  east  entered  the 
hill  country  of  Judea.  As  far  as  Engedi  they  could  march 
by  the  shore  without  any  obstacle ;  north  of  it  the  shore  line  is 
impracticable,  even  for  footmen,  and  there  are  no  paths  by 

i  Rob.  Res.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  506. 

*  Canon  Tristram  says  that  on  breaking  through  the  limestone  incrusta- 
tion of  the  recesses  of  the  rocks  there,  he  found  great  masses  of  perfect 
palm  leaves,  and  even  whole  trees,  petrified  where  they  had  stood. — Nat. 
Hist,  of  the  Bible,  p.  380. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


which  beasts  could  be  led  up.  Had  they  taken  any  of  the 
openings  south  of  Engedi  this  must  have  entailed  a  long 
march  across  a  rough  and  almost  waterless  desert."  l 

Masada,  the  last  refuge  of  the  Jews  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  is  about  half  way  between  Engedi  and  the 
south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Tristram  describes  it  as  "a  bold 
isolated  rock — a  very  inland  Gibraltar — crowned  by  certainly 
the  most  remarkable  ruin  in  Palestine." 

15.  Hareth,  the  city  to  which  David  went  from  Adullam, 
before  he  came  to  Ziph,  (i   Sam.  xxii.  5),  is  identical  with  a 
ruin  called  Kharas,  five  or  six  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

1 6.  Keilah  is  west  of  Kharas  about  two  miles,     (i  Sam. 
xxiii.  1-13.) 

17.  The  following  towns  have  been  identified,  for  the  most 
part,  by  the  names  which  they  still  retain.     The  distances  given 
are  from  Hebron : 

Bethzur,  four  miles  north,  with  Beit  Sur  (Josh.  xv.  58)  ;  Gedor,  seven 
miles  north,  with  Jedar  (i  Chron.  iv.  39);  Beth  Tappuah,  a  short  dis- 
tance northwest,  with  Tuffuh  (Josh.  xv.  53)  ;  Adoraim  in  Wady  Afranj, 
six  miles  west,  with  Dura  (2  Chron.  xi.  9) ;  Arab,  seven  miles  southwest 
with  Er-Rabiyeh  (Josh.  xv.  52) ;  Juttah,  the  traditional  residence  of 
Zacharias,  five  miles  south,  with  Yuttah  (Josh.  xxi.  16;  Luke  i.  39); 
SocoA,  ten  miles  southwest,  with  Shuweikeh  (Josh.  xv.  48) ;  Jattir,  the 
lowest  town  on  the  border  of  the  Hill  Country  proper,  thirteen  miles 
southwest,  with  Attir.  (Josh.  xv.  48.) 

Debir  has  been  identified  with  El  Dhoheriyeh,  twelve  miles  southwest 
of  Hebron.  This  was  the  famous  "  book-town  "  of  the  Anakim  (Kirjath- 
Sepher)  Josh.  xv.  15.  Conder  notes  the  fact  that  Debir  stood  in  a  "dry 
land "  and  locates  the  "  upper  and  lower  springs "  given  to  Caleb's 
daughter  at  Dilbeh  seven  miles  north  of  Debir.  These  seem  to  be  the 
springs  to  which  reference  is  made ;  for  there  are  no  other  of  like  charac- 
ter in  this  entire  region."  They  number  fourteen  in  all  and  are  divided 
into  three  groups.  From  these  fountain  heads  a  brook  flows  through  the 
small  gardens  for  four  or  five  miles."  (Judg.  i.  15  ;  Josh.  xv.  9.)* 

>  Pict.  Pal.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  191.          »  Faussett's  Bib.  Cyclopedia,  p.  165. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  NEGEB  OR  SOUTH  COUNTRY 

THIS  district  lies  between  the  lower  levels  of  the  mountains 
and  the  desert  of  Paran,  or  Tih.  Its  southern  limit  is  about 
sixty-five  miles  south  of  Hebron.  Several  of  the  towns  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  chapter  have  sometimes  been  classed 
with  the  Negeb,  but  the  line  of  division,  as  therein  indicated, 
may  be  assumed  as  approximately  correct. 

In  the  Scriptures  several  subdivisions  indicating  special  lo- 
calities are  mentioned,  such  as  the  Negeb  of  the  Cherethites; 
of  Judah ;  of  the  Kenites ;  of  Caleb,  etc. 

The  descent  to  the  south  throughout  this  section  is  by  a  series 
of  steps  or  slightly  inclined  slopes.  On  the  surface,  with  a  few 
exceptions  here  and  there,  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  dry  and 
thirsty  land  "  bare  and  desolate  as  the  desert  itself."  It  is  still 
a  pasture  land,  however,  and  in  most  of  the  deeper  Valleys  a 
good  supply  of  water  may  be  obtained  by  sinking  wells.  In 
many  localities  grass  and  flowers  appear  in  the  early  spring,  but 
soon  wither  away  or  become  as  brown  and  dry  as  the  soil  and 
rock  around  them.  Before  the  conquest  the  greater  part  of  the 
Southland  was  held  by  the  Amalekites.  (Num.  xiii.  29.)  In 
the  southwestern  part  David  wandered  for  a  time  when  hiding 
from  the  face  of  Saul,  (i  Sam.  xxvii.  7,  8.)  The  northern 
portion  was  a  favorite  pasture  range  of  Abraham  and  Isaac,  but 
in  every  place  of  their  sojourn  it  was  necessary  to  dig  wells. 
Except  where  groves  were  planted  in  the  neighborhood  of  these 
wells  the  entire  country  was  probably  as  treeless  then  as  it  is 
now.  Canon  Tristram,  to  whom  this  region  is  more  familiar 
than  most  explorers  of  modern  times,  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  its  characteristics  and  ancient  habitations : 

237 


238 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  south  differs  from  the  hill  country  to  the  north  of  it,  not  merely  so 
much  in  being  pastoral  instead  of  cultivated,  for  its  whole  extent  yields 
proof  of  very  extensive  though  not  universal  cultivation  in  former  times ; 
nor  in  its  being  less  hilly,  for  it  has  but  few  plains  of  any  extent;  but  in 
its  deep  ravines,  torn  and  rent  by  winter  torrents  (aphikim),  "  the  streams 
in  the  south  "  of  Psalm  cxxvi.  4.  These  torrents,  quite  dry  in  summer,  cut 
down  steep  cliffs  into  narrow  gullies  by  their  violence  in  winter.  On 
the  west  side  they  drain  toward  the  Arish  and  Philistia,  on  the  east 
toward  the  Dead  Sea,  none  running  south  into  Paran  or  the  wilder- 
ness. 

The  wide  central  expanse  is  now  a  sort  of  upland  wilderness,  a  series 
of  rolling  hills,  with  scanty  herbage  more  abundant  on  their  northern 
slopes,  but  without  a  tree  or  a  bush  more  than  three  feet  high.  Occasion- 
ally, by  a  well,  the  rich  soil,  scratched  for  barley  or  wheat,  shows  that 
with  care,  as  in  the  days  of  Isaac,  it  might  still  yield  a  hundredfold. 
Probably  every  one  of  the  twenty-nine  cities,  with  their  villages,  in  the 
south,  assigned  by  Joshua  to  Judah  and  Simeon,  survive.  They  cover  many 
acres  with  ruins  which  might,  with  very  slight  labor,  be  again  rendered 
habitable  :  with  oil-presses  and  wine-presses  lying  at  their  gates ;  contain- 
ing cisterns,  reservoirs,  and  conduits  still  perfect  and  beautifully  cemented, 
with  a  rich  soil  in  the  lower  grounds ;  in  short  everything  that  might  be 
supposed  to  attract  a  settled  population.  Nearly  all  of  these  cities  have 
been  identified,  with  more  or  less  probability. 

Yet  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  south  country,  thickly  strewn 
as  it  is  with  traces  of  its  former  occupants  and  peopled  with  hardy  tribes 
who  pay  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Turkish  government,  there  is  not  so 
much  as  a  single  inhabited  village. 

Not  until  the  traveller  has  fairly  crossed  its  northern  border  and  entered 
the  hill  country,  does  this  strange  spectacle  of  deserted  towns  and  a  house- 
less population  cease  to  arrest  his  attention.  .  .  .  The  words  of  Dr. 
Robinson,  about  Zephath  or  Hormah,  may  be  applied  to  every  city  of  the 
Negeb :  "  Once,  as  we  judged  upon  the  spot,  this  must  have  been  a  city 
of  not  less  than  10,000  or  20,000  inhabitants.  Now  it  is  a  perfect  field 
of  ruins,  a  scene  of  unutterable  desolation,  across  which  the  passing 
stranger  can  with  difficulty  find  his  way."  A  mighty  spell  seems  to  rest 
upon  the  cities  of  the  south.  We  turn  to  the  word  of  prophecy,  and  we 
read,  The  cities  of  the  south  (Negeb)  shall  be  shut  up,  and  none  shall 
open  them :  Judah  shall  be  carried  away  captive,  all  of  it :  it  shall  be 
wholly  carried  away  captive.  (Jer.  xiii.  19.)  1 

i  Holy  Land,  pp.  14,  15. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country 


SITES  OF  SPECIAL  INTEREST 


239 


I.  Beersheba. — This  famous  camping-ground  of  the  pa- 
triarchs is  situated  on  the  northern  side  of  the  wide  water- 
course, known  as  Wady  es  Seba  (Lat.  31°  4';  Long.  34°  47'). 
It  is  forty-six  miles  from  Jerusalem  and  twenty-seven  miles 
southwest  of  Hebron.  The  Hebrew  name  signifies  "  Well  of 
the  Oath,"  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  first  known  as  a 


ABRAHAM'S  WELL,  BEERSHEBA. 

camping-place  and  afterward  as  a  town  or  city.  (Gen.  xxi. 
31.)  Two  of  the  seven  wells,  which  were  originally  sunk  by 
the  servants  of  the  Patriarchs  in  this  valley,  are  still  used  by 
the  shepherds  who  gather  their  flocks,  as  of  old  around  them 
and  drawing  from  the  wells  with  bucket  and  rope,  pour  the 
water  into  rude  troughs  of  hewn  stone,  placed  at  convenient 
distances  around  the  mouths  of  the  wells.  Dr.  Robinson  says 
that  the  water  in  both  is  pure  and  sweet,  and  in  great  abun- 
dance; the  finest  indeed  which  he  had  found  since  leaving 
Sinai. 

The  larger  well  measures  twelve  and  one-half  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  is  over  forty-five  feet  in  depth.  In  the  vicinity  may 
be  seen  traces  of  the  other  wells,  one  of  which  is  twenty-three 


240 


The  Land  of  Israel 


feet  deep  and  nine  feet  two  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  all 
lined  above  the  native  rock  with  finely-squared  blocks  of  lime- 
stone, which  are  deeply  furrowed  by  the  ropes  of  the  water- 
drawers.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  town  are  scattered  over  an 
area  of  a  half  a  mile  or  more  in  extent. 

The  southern  bank  of  the  valley  is  banked  up  with  a  strong  wall  of 
solid  masonry,  extending  for  a  few  hundred  yards  along  the  part  opposite 
the  wells,  which  are  thus  protected  from  the  earth  falling  in  and  filling 
them  up.  The  hillside  behind  them  is  covered  with  ruins,  though,  from 
the  confused  state  into  which  they  have  fallen,  it  is  impossible  now  to 
make  out  with  any  certainty  the  original  ground-plan  of  the  town.  Higher 
up  in  the  valley  are  the  foundations  of  a  Greek  church. 

The  country  around  Beersheba  consists  of  a  rolling  plain,  intersected 
by  the  wady  beds  of  Seba  and  Khulil.  In  spring,  when  the  rains  have 
fallen,  it  is  often  covered  for  miles  around  with  grass,  flowers  and  herb- 
age ;  at  other  times  it  is  nothing  but  a  dry,  parched  land.  Strange  and 
solemn  are  the  thoughts  which  such  a  place  inspires. 

Here  are  the  very  wells,  in  all  human  probability,  which  the  Father  of 
the  Faithful  dug.  The  name  he  gave  it  still  clings  to  the  spot;  the 
Bedawin,  to  whom  the  Scriptures  are  unknown,  still  point  with  pride  to  the 
great  work  which  their  father  Ibrahim  achieved,  and  as  they  draw  water 
from  it  for  their  flocks  and  herds,  the  ropes  that  let  the  buckets  down  still 
glide  along  the  same  deep  furrows  in  the  masonry  which,  mayhap,  the  ropes 
of  the  patriarch's  servants  first  began. l 

Beersheba,  more  than  any  other  place  in  the  Land,  was  the 
centre  of  Patriarchal  life  and  history.  Here  Abraham  dwelt 
for  about  seventy-five  years  after  the  destruction  of  Sodom. 
Around  the  place  of  his  tent  and  altar  he  planted  a  grove  and 
called  there  on  the  name  of  the  Lord,  the  everlasting  God : 
thus  establishing  the  first  permanent  sanctuary  in  the  Holy 
Land.  (Gen.  xxi.  33.)  Most  of  the  180  years  of  Isaac's  life 
were  spent  in  or  about  Beersheba ;  and  Jacob  was  about 
seventy  years  old  when  he  went  out  from  this  place  to  go  to 
his  mother's  home  in  Padan  A  m.  (Gen.  xxviii.  10.)  To  this 
sanctuary  he  came  once  more,  when  an  old  man,  on  his  way 

1   Prof.  Palmer.— Pict.  Pal.  Vol.  II.,  p.  207. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country  241 

*>  Egypt,  and  there  "  God  spake  to  him  in  the  visions  of  the 
night"  and  dispelled  all  his  fears,  promising  to  bring  him  up 
again  to  the  land  after  that  his  son  Joseph  "should  have  put 
his  hands  upon  his  eyes."  (Gen.  xlvi.  1-5.)  Here  Abraham 
received  the  strange  command  to  sacrifice  his  son  Isaac,  and 
thence  he  journeyed  to  the  land  of  Moriah  in  unquestioning 
obedience  to  the  Divine  direction.  (Gen.  xxii.  3,  19.)  To 
Beersheba  Rebekah  came  as  the  bride  of  Isaac  and  there  her 
children  were  born.  Here  Esau  forfeited  his  birthright  and 
Jacob  obtained  by  fraud  the  coveted  blessing.  (Gen.  xxv.  34, 
xxvii.  23-29.) 

Beersheba  was  originally  assigned  to  Judah,  but  was  after- 
ward given  to  Simeon.  (Josh.  xix.  2.)  Near  the  close  of 
the  period  of  the  Judges  it  was  the  recognized  limit  of  Israel's 
possession  in  the  south,  and  hence  the  familiar  expression 
"from  Dan  to  Beersheba."  (Judg.  xx.  i;  i  Sam.  iii.  20.) 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  this  applies  to  the  land  in  all 
periods  of  its  history,  or  that  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  its  Biblical 
limitation  in  modern  times.  Over  the  district  represented  by 
this  city  Samuel  appointed  his  two  sons,  Joel  and  Abiah,  to  be 
Judges,  (i  Sam.  viii.  2.)  To  this  place  Elijah  fled  from  the 
fierce  anger  of  Jezebel  on  his  way  to  the  desert  solitudes  of  the 
south,  (i  Kings  xix.  3.)  Beersheba  was  one  of  the  seats  of 
idolatrous  worship  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  was  denounced 
by  the  prophets  in  connection  with  Bethel,  Gilgal  and  Dan. 
(Amos  v.  5,  viii.  14.  See  also  2  Kings  xxiii.  8.) 

Arad,  the  city  of  "king  Arad  who  dwelt  in  the  south," 
(Num.  xxi.  i),  lies  eighteen  miles  northeast  of  Beersheba 
and  seventeen  south  of  Hebron.  Its  modern  designation 
is  Tell  Arad.  (Judg.  i.  16.)  "  Tell  Arad  and  its  adjacent 
plains  form  the  Negeb  of  the  Kenitcs,  probably  extend- 
ing to  the  southwestern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea."1 

2.     Sheba  (Josh.  xix.  2)  is  probably  identical  with  Tell  es 
Seba,  two  and  one-half  miles  east  of  Beersheba. 
i  Thirty  Years'  Work,  p.  75. 


242 


The  Land  of  Israel 


3.  Aroer,  one  of  the  haunts  of  David,  is  in  the  Wady 
Ararah  twelve  miles  southeast  of  Beersheba.     (i  Sam.  xxx. 

28.) 

4.  Rehoboth. — The  probable  site  of  the  well   to  which 
Isaac   gave   this   name  (Gen.  xxvi.  22)  is  in  the  Wady  Ru- 
haibeh,  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Beersheba.     .     .     .     "On 
the  left  of  the  wady  is  a  small  valley  called  Shatneh  er  Ru- 
haibeh,  in  which  we  see  the  word  Sitnah,  so  that  two  of  the 
three  words  (Gen.  xxvi.  20-22)  are  preserved."  l 

5.  Zephath,  afterward  called  Hormah  (Judg.  i.  17),  has 
been  identified  with  the  ruins  of  Sebaita,  thirty  miles  south  of 
Beersheba. 

"  All  round  the  city  lie  the  gardens  which  once  were  covered  with 
orchards  of  apples  and  pomegranates,  and  terraces  of  clustering  vines. 
The  city  itself  is  marked  by  an  expanse  of  ruins  500  yards  long  by  300 
wide ;  containing  three  churches,  a  tower,  and  two  reservoirs  of  water.  No 
timber  is  used  in  the  building  of  the  houses,  the  absence  of  wood  being 
supplied  by  thick  beams  of  stone.  Nearly  every  house  had  its  well, 
about  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  covered  with  square  stone  blocks  having 
holes  cut  in  them.  The  streets  can  still  be  traced,  and  the  outer  build- 
ings are  either  walled  in  or  strengthened  with  additional  masonry,  pre- 
senting a  series  of  angles,  like  a  fortification.  Three  miles  to  the  north- 
west stands  a  ruined  fortress  on  an  isolated  hill,  called  El  Meshrifeh — the 
watch-tower.  It  commands  the  only  pass  by  which  the  plain  where 
Sebaita,  or  Hormah,  stands  can  be  approached  and  answers  to  the  de- 
scription in  the  Bible.  The  distance  of  Sebaita  from  Ain  Gadis  (Kadesh 
Barnea)  is  only  twenty  miles.  The  names  Dheiget  el  Amerin  (ravine 
of  the  Amorites),  Ras  Amir  (a  chain  of  low  mountains  fifteen  miles 
southwest  of  El  Meshrifeh),  and  Sheikh  el  Amir  (a  place  in  the  immedi- 
ate neighborhood  of  El  Meshrifeh),  all  point  to  the  identification  of  this 
region  with  the  hill  country  of  the  Amorites. 

"  Thus  the  name,  Sebaita,  is  etymologically  identical  with  the 
Zephath  of  the  Bible.  Zephath  means  watch-tower,  and  it  exactly 
corresponds  both  in  situation  and  in  name.  Mr.  Palmer  suggests  here 
that  the  city,  though  three  miles  distant  from  the  fortress  which  protected 
it,  might  yet  well  be  called  the  city  of  the  Watch-Tower ;  so  that  in  El 

»  Our  Work  in  Pal.,  p.  300. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country  243 

Meshrifeh  we  should  have  the  Zephath  itself,  and  in  Sebaita  the  city 
of  the  Zephath. 

"  This  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  the  tenacity  of  the 
ancient  names.  It  is  3,500  years  since  Judah,  with  Simeon  his  brother, 
changed  the  name  from  Zephath  to  Hormah.  The  country  has  been  suc- 
cessively Jewish,  Roman,  Christian,  Mohammedan,  Christian  again,  and 
Mohammedan  again.  Yet  here  is  the  original  name  surviving  still."  l 

This  identification  throws  light  upon  the  long  lost  site  of 
Kadesh  Barnea.  It  is  specially  interesting  because  of  its  as- 
sociation with  the  battle  and  defeat  of  the  Israelites,  "  when 
they  presumed  to  go  up  unto  the  hilltop  " — of  the  Amorites — 
in  disobedience  to  the  Divine  command  (Num.  xiv.  40-45,) 
and  also  of  a  later  battle  in  which  the  Israelites  were  the  vic- 
tors. (Num.  xxi.  1-3.)  The  plain  Es  Seer,  which  stretches 
northward  almost  to  Beersheba  from  Hormah,  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Seir,  or  the  region  of  Seir,  to  which  Moses  refers  in 
his  account  of  the  battle:  "And  the  Amorites,  which  dwelt 
in  that  mountain,  came  out  against  you,  and  chased  you,  as  bees 
do,  and  destroyed  you  in  Seir,  even  unto  Hormah."  (Deut.  i. 
44.)  The  "Mount  Halak  (Bald  Mountain)  that  goeth  up  to 
Seir"  (Josh.  xii.  7)  was  without  doubt  the  rugged  barrier  which 
stretches  along  the  northern  border  of  the  Wady  Feqreh  (Fekreh). 
"  This  wady  ascends  southwesterly  from  the  Arabah,  from  a 
point  not  far  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  separates  Palestine 
proper  from  the  Azazimeh  mountain  tract,  or  Jebel  Muqrah 
group.  The  northern  wall  of  this  wady  is  a  bare  and  bold 
rampart  of  rock,  forming  a  natural  boundary  as  it  <  goeth  up  to 
Seir ' ;  a  landmark  both  impressive  and  unique,  and  which  cor- 
responds with  all  the  Bible  mentions  of  the  Mount  Halak."  3 
The  identity  of  the  plain  Es  Seer  with  "  the  land  of  Seir  in 
the  country  or  field  of  Edom,"  where  Esau  dwelt  when  Jacob 
returned  from  Padan  Aram  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  has  also  been  satis- 
factorily established.  This  tract — which  lies  close  to  the 

1  Our  Work  in  Pal.,  pp.  296,  298. 
9  Tnimbull's  Kadesh  Barnea,  p.  95. 


244  The  Land  of  Israel 

southern  limit  of  the  land  of  Canaan — is  to  be  distinguished 
from  Mount  Seir  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Arabah. 

6.  Kadesh  Barnea. — This  important  site  has  been  definitely 
located,  after  many  years  of  uncertainty  and  controversy,  at 
Ain  Gadis  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  written,  Ain  Quadis.  The 
name  in  either  form  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kadesh.  The  wady  at  the  head  of  which  Ain  Gadis  is  situated, 
expands  into  a  fertile  plain  about  ten  miles  long  by  six  broad. 


KADESH    BARNEA. P.  E.  F. 

"  At  the  northeast  of  the  plain  is  a  bold  and  bare  rock,  a 
promontory  of  the  northern  mountain  rampart,  from  the  foot  of 
which  issues  a  copious  spring,  which  begins  by  falling  in 
cascades  into  the  bed  of  a  torrent,  and  ends  by  losing  itself  in 
the  sands.  The  plain  of  Gadis  is  strictly  within  the  limits  of 
that  southern  desert  now  called  et-Tih,  and  yet  it  is  quite  close 
to  the  Wady  Murreh,  which  with  its  sandy  expansions  toward 
the  east  may  well  have  been  the  Wilderness  of  Zin."  l 

Ain  Gadis  is  forty-eight  miles  from  Beersheba  and  nearly  the 
same  distance  from  the  base  of  the  Mount  Seir  range  (Lat. 
30°  28';  Long.  34°  36'). 

This  long  hidden  site  was  discovered  by  the  Rev.  J.  Row- 
lands, an  English  explorer,  in  1842,  but  all  traces  of  it  were 
again  lost  for  nearly  forty  years.  The  honor  of  its  re-discovery 
belongs  to  Dr.  H.  Clay  Trumbull  of  Philadelphia,  who  has 

1  Butler's  Bible  Work,  p.  557. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country  245 

fully  described  and  identified  it  in  his  well-known  work  entitled 
Kadesh  Barnea. 

Near  the  middle  of  the  Wady  Dr.  Trumbull  found  "  rich 
fields  of  wheat  and  barley,"  artificial  ridges  for  retaining  and 
utilizing  the  rainfall  and  a  large  magazine  for  grain  "  dug  into 
the  ground,  with  a  mound  heaped  upon  it,  somewhat  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Egyptian  granaries  shown  in  the  tomb  picture-gal- 
leries of  the  Pharaoh's'."  In  the  quotation  which  follows,  Dr. 
Trumbull  gives  his  first  impression  of  Ain  Quadis  and  its  sur- 
roundings : 

It  was  a  marvellous  sight !  Out  from  the  barren  and  desolate  stretch 
of  the  burning  desert-waste,  we  had  come  with  magical  suddenness  into 
an  oasis  of  verdure  and  beauty,  unlocked  for  and  hardly  conceivable  in 
such  a  region.  A  carpet  of  grass  covered  the  ground.  Fig  trees  laden 
with  fruit  nearly  ripe  enough  for  eating,  were  along  the  shelter  of  the 
southern  hillside.  Shrubs  and  flowers  showed  themselves  in  variety  and 
profusion.  Running  water  gurgled  under  the  waving  grass.  We  had  seen 
nothing  like  it  since  leaving  Wady  Fayran;  nor  was  it  equalled  in  loveli- 
ness of  scene  by  any  single  bit  of  landscape,  of  like  extent,  even  there. 

Standing  out  from  the  earth-covered  limestone  hills  at  the  northeastern 
sweep  of  this  picturesque  recess,  was  to  be  seen  the  "  large  single  mass, 
or  a  small  hill  of  solid  rock,"  which  Rowlands  looked  at  as  the  cliff 
(Sel'a)  smitten  by  Moses,  to  cause  it  to  "  give  forth  his  water,"  when  its 
flowing  stream  had  been  exhausted.  From  underneath  this  rugged  spur 
of  the  northeasterly  mountain  range  issued  the  now  abundant  stream. 

A  circular  well,  stoned-up  from  the  bottom  with  time-worn  limestone 
blocks,  was  the  first  receptacle  for  the  water.  A  marble  watering  trough 
was  near  this  well.  Down  the  slope,  a  little  distance  was  a  second,  much 
like  the  first,  but  of  greater  diameter;  and  here  again  was  a  marble 
trough.  ...  A  basin  or  pool  of  water  larger  than  either  of  the  wells, 
but  not  stoned  up  like  them,  was  seemingly  the  principal  watering  place. 
Around  the  margin  of  this  pool,  as  also  around  the  stoned- 
wells,  camel  and  goat  dung — as  if  of  flocks  and  herds  for  centuries — was 
trodden  down  and  commingled  with  the  limestone  dust  so  as  to  form  a 
solid  plaster-bed.  Another  and  yet  larger  pool,  lower  down  the  slope, 
was  supplied  with  water  by  a  stream  which  rippled  and  cascaded  along  its 
narrow  bed  from  the  upper  pool;  and  yet  beyond  this,  westward,  the 
water  gurgled  away  under  the  grass,  as  we  had  met  it  when  we  came  in. 


246  The  Land  of  Israel 

and  finally  lost  itself  in  the  parching  wady  from  which  this  oasis  opened. 
The  water  itself  was  remarkably  pure  and  sweet ;  unequalled  by  any  we 
had  found  after  leaving  the  Nile.  There  was  a  New  England  look  to  this 
oasis,  especially  in  the  flowers  and  grass  and  weeds  ;  quite  unlike  anything 
we  had  seen  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Bees  were  humming  there,  and 
birds  were  flitting  from  tree  to  tree.  ...  It  was,  in  fact,  hard  to  re- 
alize that  we  were  in  the  desert,  or  even  near  it.1 

Elsewhere  Dr.  Trumbull  says  . 

All  the  conditions  of  the  Bible-text  are  met  in  Quadis  (Gadis),  as  in 
no  other  suggested  site.  A  Wady  Quadis,  a  Jebel  Quadis,  and  an  Ain 
Quadis  are  there.  Wady  Quadis  is  an  extensive  hill-encircled  region  of 
sufficient  extent  to  encamp  and  guard  a  host  like  Israel's.  Large  portions 
of  it  are  arable.  Extensive  primitive  ruins  are  about  it.  Springs  of  rare 
abundance  and  sweetness  flow  from  under  a  high  cliff.  By  name  and  by 
tradition  it  is  the  site  of  Kadesh.  Just  north  of  it  is  a  lofty  mountain, 
over  which  is  a  camel-pass  toward  Hebron.  It  lies  just  off  the  only 
feasible  route  for  an  invading  army  from  the  direction  of  Sinai,  or  from 
east  of  Akabah,  and  is  well  adapted  for  a  protected  strategic  point  of  ren- 
dezvous prior  to  an  immediate  move  northward.  It  is  at  that  central 
position  of  the  southern  boundary  line  of  Canaan  which  is  given  to 
Kadesh  in  its  later  mentions  in  the  Bible-text.  Its  relations  to  the 
probable  limits  of  Edom  and  to  all  the  well-identified  sites  of  Southern 
Canaan,  and  its  distance  from  Mount  Sinai,  conform  to  the  Bible  record.5 

The  Biblical  associations,  of  which  hints  are  given  in  the  fore- 
going statements,  are  numerous  and  important.  In  the  account 
of  Chedorlaomer's  aggressive  campaign  Kadesh  is  mentioned 
for  the  first  time.  (Gen.  xiv.  7.)  It  comes  into  view  also  in 
connection  with  the  story  of  Abraham's  sojourn  in  the  South 
country.  (Gen.  xx.  i.) 

A  succession  of  important  historic  events  took  place  during 
the  sojourn  of  Israel  at  Kadesh  Barnea.  Here  the  order  was 
issued  to  go  up  and  possess  the  land,  and  spies  were  sent  out 
to  search  it  from  the  wilderness  of  Zin  unto  Rehob,  as  men 
come  to  Hamah.  (Deut.  i.  19,  20;  Num.  xiii.  17-21.)  Here 
afterward  the  report  was  made ;  the  rebellion  took  place  follow* 

1  Kadesh  Barnea,  pp.  271-274. 

8  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia,  p.  1222. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country  247 

ing  that  report ;  and  the  sentence  of  the  rejection  of  all  the 
men  of  that  generation,  except  Joshua  and  Caleb,  was  pro- 
nounced. (Num.  xiii.  26-29,  xiv.  i-io.)  It  was  the  place 
where  Miriam  died  and  was  buried  (Num.  xx.  i) ;  and  the 
place  where  the  rock  was  smitten  from  which  the  water  came 
out  abundantly.  (Num.  xx.  2,  13.)  From  several  hints 
in  the  Scripture  narrative  the  inference  has  been  drawn  that 
Kadesh  Barnea  was  the  rallying  place  of  the  tribes  of  Israel 
during  all  the  years  of  the  wandering  in  the  wilderness. 

Here,  at  least,  they  abode  many  days  after  their  defeat  at 
Hormah  (Deut  i.  46),  and  here  also  we  find  the  entire  camp 
of  Israel  again  after  the  rebellion  of  Korah.  From  this  en- 
campment, after  vainly  endeavoring  to  secure  a  passage-way 
through  the  border  of  Edom  they  started,  at  length,  on  their 
circuitous  journey  around  the  confines  of  Edom  and  Moab  to- 
ward the  Jordan.  (Num.  xxi.  4;  Deut.  ii.  1-18.)  In  Num- 
bers xx.  1 6,  Kadesh  is  mentioned  as  a  city.  After  the  con- 
quest it  is  frequently  mentioned  as  the  lowest  city  on  the  south- 
ern border  line  of  the  heritage  of  Israel.  (Num.  xxxiv.  4; 
Josh.  xv.  3;  Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  xlviii.  28,  etc.)  "Its  location 
is  admitted  to  be  a  key  both  to  the  wanderings  of  the  Israel- 
ites and  the  bounding  of  their  domain." 

7.  Mount  Hor. — A  short  distance  eastward  of  Hormah 
(Zephath),  and  some  twenty-five  miles  northeast  of  Kadesh  Bar- 
nea, an  isolated  mountain  rises  from  a  barren  plain  over  which  it 
towers  as  a  conspicuous  landmark  from  all  sides,  but  especially 
from  the  south.  Its  modern  name  is  Jebel  Madurah.  Every 
indication  in  the  Scripture  narrative  points  to  this  mountain  as 
the  true  site  of  Mount  Hor.  Dr.  Trumbull  has  summed  up  the 
arguments  which  support  this  location,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
has  shown  the  impossibility  of  reconciling  the  traditional  site, 
within  the  limits  of  Mount  Seir,  with  the  requirements  of  the 
Bible  text.  (See  Kadesh  Barnea,  pp.  127-135.) 

"  In  its  location,  Jebel  Madurah  stands  at  a  triangular  site,  where  the 
boundaries  of  Edom,  of  Canaan,  and  of  the  Wilderness  of  Zin,  or  in  a 


248  The  Land  of  Israel 

larger  sense  of  the  Wilderness  of  Paran,  approach  each  other  so  as 
pass  along  this  mountain  without  touching  it.  It  is  at  the  extremest 
northwestern  boundary  of  the  land  of  Edom,  yet  it  is  not  within  that 
boundary  line.  It  is  on  the  very  verge  of  the  Land  of  Promise,  yet  it  is 
not  within  the  outer  limits  of  that  land.  The  border  wadies — Feqreh, 
Madurah,  Murreh,  and  Hanjoorat — which  separated  Canaan  from  Edom, 
and  both  Canaan  and  Edom  from  the  unclaimed  wilderness,  so  run  as  to 
form  the  surrounding  plain,  above  which  is  upreared  this  remarkable 
mountain-tower,  this  lofty,  solitary  mountain-citadel.  .  .  .  Jebel  Ma- 
durah is  in  the  line  from  Kadesh  of  the  route  which  the  Israelites  seem 
to  have  had  in  mind,  when  they  proposed  to  pass  along  Edom's  royal 
road  from  the  east  of  the  Arabah,  and  eastward  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  pos- 
sibly through  the  broad  Wady  el  Ghuwayr  which  offers  an  easy  passage. 
The  Israelites  would  not  unnaturally  move  thitherward  as  they  planned 
for  that  route,  and  such  a  move  on  their  part  would  not  unnaturally  be 
looked  upon  by  the  kings  of  Edom  and  Arad  as  a  threatening  move,  to 
be  met  and  resisted  vigorously."  (Num.  xx.  20,  21,  xxi.  1-3.)  1 

One  of  the  records  which  relates  to  the  death  of  Aaron 
(Deut.  x.  6),  conveys  the  impression  that  the  Israelites  were 
encamped  in  the  Wady  Madurah,  or  Moserah,  when  Moses 
and  Aaron  and  Eleazar  "  went  up  into  Mount  Hor  in  the  sight 
of  all  the  congregation." 

On  this  lone  summit  the  garments  of  Aaron  were  transferred 
to  his  son  Eleazar;  "and  Aaron  died  there  in  the  top  of  the 
Mount."  (Num.  xx.  22-28.) 

8.  Eshcol. — The  location  of  the  valley  of  Eshcol,  whence 
the  spies  brought  the  cluster  of  grapes,  which  was  "borne  upon 
a  staff  between  two"  (Num.  xiii.   23,   24),  is  not  definitely 
known.     It  may  have  been  in  the  Negeb,  a  long  way  south  of 
Hebron,  its  supposed  site. 

In  this  southland  region,  now  given  over  to  barrenness,  ex- 
cept in  favored  spots,  Professor  Palmer  found  miles  of  country 
— hillsides  and  valleys — covered  with  small  stone  heaps,  swept 
in  regular  swathes,  and  called  by  the  Arabs  to  this  day  "  teleilat 
el  anab, ' '  or  grape  mounds. 

9.  Hagar's  Well — Beer-lahai-roi — has  been  identified  with  a 

1  Kadesh  Barnea,  p.  133. 


The  Negeb  or  South  Country  249 

spring  in  the  Wady  Muweileh,  about  fifteen  miles  northwest  of 
Kadesh.  (Gen.  xxi.  19.) 

It  follows  from  the  hints  and  partial  descriptions,  already 
given,  that  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Land  of  Israel,  which 
conformed  to  the  physical  divisions  of  the  country,  was  irregu- 
lar, or  wedge-shaped  in  outline,  Kadesh  Barnea  being  its  lowest 
point. 

Roughly  speaking  the  line  ran  southward  from  the  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea  about  twelve  miles  to  the  mouth  of  the  Wady 
Feqreh.  Thence  by  way  of  this  Wady  to  the  Akrabbim  or 
steep  pass,  represented  by  Es  Suffah  or  El  Yemen  near  Mount 
Hor.  Thence  hinging  on  this  mountain  the  line  turned  south- 
ward so  as  to  include  Kadesh  Barnea,  the  extent  of  its  southern 
limit.  From  Kadesh  the  general  direction  of  the  border  line 
was  northwest  along  the  Wady  el  Arish  (River  of  Egypt)  to  its 
mouth.  This  Wady  has  several  branches,  but  the  principal 
one  runs  northwest  about  150  miles  before  it  enters  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  the  rainy  season  it  is  often  a  rushing  torrent, 
but  at  other  times  it  is  a  dry,  stony  watercourse. 

A  short  distance  north  of  the  mouth  of  Wady  el  Arish  are 
two  pillars  erected  by  Mehemet  Ali  to  mark  the  boundary  line 
between  Africa  and  Asia. 


The  Third  Longitudinal  Section 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   VALLEY    OF   LEBANON 

THE  Buka'a,  or  valley  of  Lebanon  (Josh.  xi.  17),  lies  be- 
tween the  great  parallel  ranges  north  of  the  head-waters  of  the 
Jordan.  This  valley  or  plain — the  Ccele-Syria  (Hollow  Syria) 
of  the  classic  writers — is  about  seventy-five  miles  in  length. 
In  breadth  it  varies  from  four  to  nine  miles.  The  lower  por- 
tion of  the  Lebanon  valley  is  separated  from  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Jordan  valley  by  a  low  or  secondary  ridge  which  follows 
the  general  direction  of  the  great  ranges  for  several  miles. 
This  ridge,  which  at  first  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the 
mass  of  the  eastern  mountains,  becomes  more  sharply  defined 
as  it  extends  southward.  At  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon  it 
trends  toward  the  west,  gradually  contracting  the  valley,  until 
it  ends  at  the  point  where  the  Litany  is  abruptly  deflected 
westward  through  a  deep  gorge  in  the  Lebanon  mountains. 

The  highest  ground  in  the  Lebanon  basin  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Baalbek,  some  fifty  miles  from  its  southern  limit. 
From  this  watershed  the  streams,  which  flow  abundantly  from 
springs  in  the  plain  or  on  the  mountain-sides,  part  to  north 
and  south  to  join,  by  longer  or  shorter  routes,  the  waters  of  the 
Orontes  or  Litany. 

Dr.  Robinson  describes  this  great  plain  as  "  superbly  rich 
and  beautiful ;  a  gem  lying  deep  in  its  setting  of  mountains, 
and  fringed  with  the  brilliant  snows  of  Lebanon."  * 

"Looking  down   upon   the   Buka'a,"    says   Dr.    Thomson 
i  Rob.  Res.  Vol.,  III.  p.  504. 
250 


The  Valley  of  Lebanon  251 

"from  anyone  of  the  hundred  standpoints  on  Lebanon  and 
Hermon,  the  beholder  is  charmed  with  the  checkered  and  end- 
lessly-varied expanse  of  blending  wheatfields,  green  or  golden, 
recently  ploughed  land,  black  or  reddish-brown,  and  broad 
belts  of  dun-covered  fallow  ground,  reaching  to  the  foot-hills, 
and  losing  themselves  amongst  the  vineyards  that  cling  to  the 
mountain-sides."  l 

The  modern  villages  of  the  plain  are  numerous  along  the 
lines  of  its  principal  roadways,  but  there  are  very  few  of  its 
ancient  sites  which  have  been  recovered.  Among  those  which 
have  been  identified  satisfactorily,  the  most  noteworthy  are 
Baalbek  and  Ribleh. 

Baalbek,  or  Heliopolis  as  it  was  called  by  the  Greeks,  lies  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  valley.  A  beautiful  fountain  near  by, 
whose  bright  sparkling  waters  overflow  the  basin  provided  for 
them,  and  irrigate  a  portion  of  the  adjacent  plain,  was  doubt- 
less one  of  the  determining  features  in  the  selection  of  the  site. 

The  majestic  structures  and  vast  heaps  of  massive  ruins 
which  cover  the  acropolis  of  Baalbek  have  been  for  centuries 
the  wonder  of  the  world.  The  bulk  of  these  remains  belongs 
to  two  great  temples  which  Dr.  Robinson  describes  as  follows : 

The  larger,  with  its  magnificent  peristyle  and  vast  courts  and  portico, 
extended  a  thousand  feet  in  length  from  east  to  west.  It  stands  upon  an 
artificial  vaulted  platform,  elevated  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  above  the 
adjacent  country.  Besides  the  dilapidated  ruins  of  the  courts  and  portico, 
there  now  remains  only  the  six  southwestern  columns  of  the  lofty  peri- 
style ;  and  these  are  still  the  crowning  glory  of  the  place.2 

The  lesser  temple  stands  likewise  upon  its  own  similar,  though  less 
elevated  platform.  It  is  on  the  south  of  the  greater  temple ;  is  parallel 
with  it ;  and  its  front  is  a  few  feet  east  of  the  eastern  line  of  the  great 

iThe  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.  III.,  p.  338. 

2 "These  columns  are  seven  and  a  half  feet  thick  and  sixty-two  feet 
high.  The  top  of  the  entablature  which  they  supported  must  have  been 
eighty  feet  above  the  ground  and  130  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain." 
— (Land  and  Book,  p.  325.) 


252 


The  Land  of  Israel 


peristyle.  It  had  no  court ;  and  its  length  is  less  than  one-fourth  part  oi 
that  of  the  greater  temple  with  its  courts. 

It  was  finished,  and  that  most  elaborately,  and  the  larger  portion  of  it 
still  remains;  while  not  improbably  the  larger  temple  was  never  com- 
pleted. .  .  . 

Not  less  wonderful  than  the  other  parts  of  the  great  temple  are  the  im- 
mense external  Substructions,  by  which  the  walls  supporting  the  peristyle 
are  enclosed  and  covered;  if  indeed  that  term  can  be  properly  applied  to 
huge  masses  of  masonry,  on  which  nothing  rests.  .  .  .  The  most  im- 
posing of  these  substructions  is  the  western  wall,  as  viewed  from  the  out- 
side. It  rises  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  columns,  some  fifty  feet 
above  the  ground ;  and  in  it  is  seen  the  layer  of  three  immense  stones  cele- 
brated by  all  travellers.  Of  these  stones,  the  length  of  one  is  sixty-four 
feet ;  of  another  sixty-three  feet  eight  inches ;  of  the  third  sixty-three 
feet;  in  all  198  feet  eight  inches.  Their  height  is  about  thirteen  feet ; 
and  the  thickness  apparently  the  same,  perhaps  greater.  They  are  laid 
about  twenty -three  feet  above  the  ground;  and  below  them  are  seven 
others  of  like  thickness,  and  extending  somewhat  beyond  the  upper  ones 
at  each  end.1 

These  temples  have  been  the  wonder  of  past  generations ;  and  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  wonder  of  future  generations,  until  barbarism  and  earth- 
quakes shall  have  done  their  last  work.  In  vastness  of  plan,  combined 
with  elaborateness  and  delicacy  of  execution,  they  seem  to  surpass  all 
others  in  western  Asia,  in  Africa,  and  in  Europe.  They  are  like  those  of 
Athens  in  lightness,  but  surpass  them  far  in  vastness;  they  are  vast 
and  massive  like  those  of  Thebes,  but  far  excel  them  in  airiness  and 
grace.9 

It  is  probable  that  these  great  buildings  are  constructions  or 
reconstructions  of  the  Roman  period,  but  the  immense  plat- 
form upon  which  they  stand  has  doubtless  been  from  time  im- 
memorial the  seat  of  Baal  or  Sun  worship. 

There  is  no  positive  evidence  upon  which  to  base  its  connec- 
tion with  Baal-Gad,  but  the  brief  description  of  the  location  of 
this  ancient  gathering  place  of  the  worshippers  of  Baal — "  in  the 

1  A  great  stone  in  the  quarry  nearly  a  mile  distant,  measures  sixty-eight 
feet  four  inches  in  length,  seventeen  feet  in  width  and  fourteen  feet  seven 
inches  in  height.  Its  estimated  weight  is  1,100  tons. 

*  Rob.  Res.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  507. 


The  Valley  of  Lebanon  253 

valley  of  Lebanon  under  Mount  Hermon"  (Josh.  xi.  17),  ex- 
actly accords  with  the  location  of  Baalbek. 

The  identification  of  the  "plain  of  Aven,"  mentioned  by 
the  prophet  Amos  (i.  5),  with  the  plain  of  Baalbek  is  generally 
admitted.  "  Aven  is  given  in  the  Septuagint  as  On,  the  do- 
mestic name  of  the  Egyptian  Heliopolis.  The  allusion  is 
clearly  to  the  Buka'a  of  Baalbek,  and  the  Eden  mentioned  in 
the  same  verse  is  supposed  to  be  the  Paradisus  of  Ptolemy, 
about  forty  miles  north  of  Baalbek."  l 

Riblah. — The  identity  of  this  ancient  border  town  of  the 
land  of  Israel  (Num.  xxxiv.  n)  with  the  modern  village  of 
Ribleh  is  unquestioned.  It  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Orontes  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Lebanon  valley.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  open,  easily  accessible  from  every  side, 
and  is  noted  for  its  fertility. 

Riblah  was  within  the  limits  of  the  land,  or  kingdom,  of 
Hamath  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33);  and  was  one  of  the  famous 
camping  grounds  of  the  armies  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  The 
old  caravan  route  from  the  coast  which  leads  through  the  "  En- 
trance of  Hamath"  to  Sudad,  Palmyra,  and  the  east,  inter- 
sects the  main  thoroughfare  down  the  valley  of  the  Orontes  at 
Riblah,  making  it  a  centre  of  four  great  routes — eastward, 
westward,  northward,  and  southward.  Here,  while  resting  for 
a  time  with  his  army,  Pharaoh-Necho  deposed  Jehoahaz  of 
Judah  and  put  him  "in  bands."  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33.)  At  a 
later  period  Zedekiah  was  brought  up  to  Riblah,  "  where  Nebu- 
chadnezzar gave  judgment  upon  him."  "Then  the  king  of 
Babylon  slew  the  sons  of  Zedekiah  in  Riblah  before  his  eyes : 
also  the  king  of  Babylon  slew  all  the  nobles  of  Judah.  More- 
over he  put  out  Zedekiah' s  eyes,  and  bound  him  with  chains 
to  carry  him  to  Babylon."  (Jer.  xxxix.  5-7.) 

i  Dr.  Merrill— Pict.  Pal.,  p.  468. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  VALLEY   OF    THE   JORDAN 

THE  connecting  link  between  the  basins  of  the  Lebanon  and 
the  Jordan  is  a  long,  narrow  valley,  known  as  Wady  et  Teim. 
This  valley  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  foot-hills  of  the  Anti- 
Lebanon  ;  on  the  west  by  the  secondary  ridge,  already  described, 
which  runs  parallel  to  the  Anti-Lebanon  range.  A  low  water- 
shed, not  far  from  the  upper  end  of  the  Wady,  diverts  a  few 
streamlets  northward  into  the  Buka'a,  but  in  general  the  drain- 
age from  the  slopes  on  either  side  flows  southward  into  the  Jor- 
dan valley.  The  largest  and  longest  tributary,  coming  from 
the  northern  slope  of  Hermon,  is  reinforced  by  a  swiftly-flowing 
stream  from  a  perennial  fountain  near  Hasbeiya,  and  is  known 
as  the  Hasbany  branch  of  the  Jordan. 

West  of  the  lower  stretch  of  Wady  et  Teim,  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  wooded  ridge,  is  a  beautiful  upland  plain  called 
Merj  Ayun  (the  "Meadow  of  Springs").  Robinson  describes 
this  plain  as  oval  in  outline,  level  as  a  floor,  and  about  three  miles 
in  length  by  two  in  breadth.  It  is  nearly  1,800  feet  above  sea 
level  and  drains  toward  the  south.  The  westmost  tributary  of 
the  Jordan — the  Derdarah  branch — rises  in  this  plain.  It  is 
frequently  dry  in  summer  and  hence  is  not  reckoned  with  the 
main  sources  of  the  river. 

Tell  Dibbin,  near  the  upper  end  of  Merj  Ayun,  is  the  gen- 
erally accepted  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Ijon.  The  Hebrew 
name  lyon  is  still  preserved  in  the  Arabic  name  (Ayun)  of  the 
plain.  Ijon  was  one  of  the  cities  of  Naphtali.  It  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  Benhadad  of  Syria  (i  Kings  xv.  20;  2 
Chron.  xvi.  4)  ;  and,  at  a  later  period,  by  Tiglath-Pileser.  (2 
Kings  xv.  29.)  The  town  of  Abel-beth-Maachah,  or  Abel- 
Maim  (2  Chron.  xvi.  4),  which  on  each  of  the  above-men- 

254 


Upper  Basin 

of  the 

Jordan  I/alley 


ofti* 

Jordan 
J/alley 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  255 

tioned  invasions  was  involved  in  a  like  destruction,  has  been 
identified  with  the  little  town  of  Abil,  seven  miles  south  of 
Tell  Dibbin.  "  The  Derdarah,  from  Merj  Ayun,  glides  swiftly 
along  the  western  declivity  of  the  Tell,  and  from  the  neighbor- 
ing mountains  gushes  out  the  powerful  stream  of  er  Ruahineh. 
Such  rivulets  would  convert  any  part  of  this  country,  under 
skillful  cultivation,  into  a  paradise  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  en- 
title it  to  be  called  'Abel  on  the  waters,'  <a  mother  in 
Israel."'1 

When  besieged  by  Joab's  army  this  city  was  saved  from  de- 
struction by  the  timely  interference  of  a  wise  woman,  who, 
calling  out  to  the  chief  captain  from  the  wall,  obtained  a  res- 
pite until  she  could  persuade  her  townsmen  to  deliver  up  the 
head  of  the  traitor  Sheba,  whose  cause  they  had  rashly  es- 
poused. (2  Sam.  xx.  14-22.) 

The  Jordan  valley  proper  begins  at  the  base  of  Mount 
Hermon  and  extends  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  Dead  Sea 
basin.  This  is  marked  by  a  line  of  white  cliffs  which  cross  the 
Valley  (Arabah)  obliquely  eight  miles  south  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  general  direction  of  the  valley  is  almost 
due  south.  Its  total  length  is  about  158  miles. 

There  are  three  distinct  levels  or  basins  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
each  of  which  contains  a  lake  famous  in  history,  and  unique  in 
its  setting.  The  river  passes  through  two  of  these  lakes  in  its 
course  and  discharges  the  full  volume  of  its  accumulated  waters 
into  the  third.  The  first,  Lake  Huleh, — known  as  the  waters 
of  Merom  in  the  days  of  Joshua — touches  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  the  second — the  Lake  of  Galilee — lies  682 
feet  below;  the  third — the  Dead  Sea — lies  1,300  feet  below 
sea  level. 

The   connection  between  the  upper  lakes  is  a  contracted 
valley  down  which  the  river  flows  in  a  series  of  rapids.     The 
connection  between  the  lake  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea  is  a 
broad  valley,  shut  in  by  high  hills,  called  El  Ghor. 
» The  Land  and  the  Book,  Vol.     p.  545. 


256  The  Land  of  Israel 

These  natural  features  suggest  five  subdivisions  of  the  valle 
viz  : 

The  Upper  Basin  of  the  Jordan,  the  Descent  between  the  Up- 
per Lakes,  the  Galilee  Basin,  the  Ghor,  and  the  Dead  Sea  Basin. 

i.  The  Upper  Basin  of  the  Jordan. — This,  as  Dr. 
Robinson  suggests,  may  properly  be  called  the  Basin  or  Plain 
of  the  Huleh.  It  connects  with  the  narrower  plain  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wady  et  Teim  on  a  line  with  the  southern  base 
of  Mount  Hermon,  and  extends  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
Huleh  Lake.  The  Huleh  basin  is  about  five  miles  in  breadth 
and  eighteen  miles  in  length.  Its  northern  portion  is  a  green, 
meadow-like  tract,  varied  with  occasional  thickets  of  under- 
growth and  patches  of  reedy  marsh-lands.  Here  the  numerous 
rivulets  from  the  mountains  unite  with  streams  of  greater  vol- 
ume, bubbling  up  from  the  ground  or  bursting  forth  from  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks,  to  form  the  Jordan — a  river  almost  full 
grown  from  the  beginning  of  its  course.  The  real  source  of 
all  these  tributaries,  and  hence  of  the  river  itself,  is  the  vajt 
reservoir  of  snow  and  ice  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Hermon. 
The  volume  of  the  flood  which  the  Jordan  carries  down  to  the 
basin  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  regulated  by  the  periodic  melting  of 
this  never-failing  supply  of  frozen  moisture. 

Three  large  streams  sometimes  called  rivers, — known  as  the 
Leddan,  the  Banias,  and  the  Hasbany — find  their  way  to  the 
plain  from  the  base  of  Hermon,  and  unite  to  form  the  Upper 
Jordan.  The  copious  fountains  from  which  they  issue  are  the 
main  sources  of  the  Jordan. 

(i.)  The  Fountain  of  the  Hasbany  flows  out  from 
the  base  of  a  cliff  near  the  village  of  Hasbeiya  on  the  western 
side  of  Mount  Hermon.  This  is  the  most  remote  source  of 
the  Jordan.  It  is  1,700  feet  above  the  sea  level  and  about  115 
miles  from  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  descent  of 
the  river,  in  other  words,  from  its  farthest  perennial  source  to 
its  mouth  is  3,000  feet  or  nearly  twenty-eight  feet  to  the  mile 
of  its  direct  distance.  The  Hasbany  begins  its  course,  as  al- 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  257 

ready  noted,  in  the  watershed  of  the  Wady  et  Teim,  far  beyond 
this  noted  fountain,  but  this  northern  portion  is  not  a  perennial 
stream. 

(2.)  The  Fountain  of  the  Leddan  rises  under  the  west- 
ern shoulder  of  Tell  el  Kady,  the  generally  accepted  site  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Dan.  Here  a  deep,  clear  pool  is  formed  which 
sends  a  broad  stream  down  the  plain.  This  is  the  largest  of 
all  the  fountains  of  the  land  of  Israel,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  single  fountain  in  the  world.  Its  location  at  the  head 
of  the  valley,  and  its  immense  volume  of  water  entitle  it  to  be 
named  as  the  chief  source  of  the  Jordan.  Its  elevation  is  a 
little  over  500  feet. 

The  Tell  rises  about  forty  feet  above  the  plain.  It  is  ob- 
long in  outline  and  somewhat  depressed  in  the  centre.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  cover  a  considerable  extent  of  ground 
and  the  region  around,  when  under  careful  cultivation,  must 
have  been  singularly  beautiful  and  productive  :  "  a  place  where 
there  was  no  want  of  anything  that  is  in  the  earth."  (Judg. 
xviii.  10.)  There  is  a  famous  oak  on  a  gently  inclined  slope  of 
this  mound,  not  far  from  the  fountain,  which  is  almost  as  large 
and  stately  in  appearance  as  the  oak  at  Mam  re.  Other  trees 
of  vigorous  growth  occupy  the  higher  ground  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity :  while  along  the  beds  of  the  rushing  streams  be- 
low, dense  thickets,  and  jungles  of  rank  vegetation  almost  hide 
the  water  from  view. 

The  story  of  the  conquest  of  this  old  Phoenician  city — origi- 
nally called  Laish — by  the  Danites,  is  recorded  in  Judges  xviii. 
Here  after  the  conquest  the  children  of  Dan  departed  from  the 
faith  of  their  fathers  by  setting  up  a  graven  image  before  which 
worship  was  offered  "  all  the  time  that  the  house  of  God  was  in 
Shiloh."  (Judg.  xviii.  29-31.) 

At  a  later  period  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf  was  insti- 
tuted at  Dan,  and  until  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  away  it  con- 
tinued to  be  a  noted  shrine  of  idolatrous  worship,  (i  Kings 
xii.  28,  29;  Amos.  viii.  14.) 


258  The  Land  of  Israel 

At  this  place,  long  before  any  of  these  events  occurred, 
Abraham,  at  the  head  of  his  band  of  armed  retainers,  overtook 
the  marauding  hosts  of  Chedorlaomer,  and  smote  them  by 
night,  pursuing  them  unto  Hobah,  which  is  on  the  left  hand  of 
Damascus.  (Gen.  xiv.  14,  15.) 

(3.)  The  Fountain  of  Banias  springs  directly  from  the 
southern  base  of  Mount  Hermon.  It  is  four  miles  northeast  of 
Tell  el  Kady  and  the  way  to  it  leads  through  a  long  stretch  of 
green  glades  and  meadow-land,  dotted  here  and  there  with 
clumps  of  oaks  and  olives.  The  name  Banias,  which  is  ap- 
plied to  the  site  of  the  ruined  city  as  well  as  to  the  fountain,  is 
the  Arabic  equivalent  of  the  old  Greek  name  Paneas — the 
abode  or  shrine  of  the  god  Pan.  The  prominent  features  of 
the  place  are  a  broad  terrace  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation 
"  all  alive  with  streams  of  water  and  cascades  "  ;  a  precipitous 
cliff  at  the  mountain's  foot  something  more  than  100  feet  high; 
the  remains  of  ruined  temples  ;  and,  at  the  bottom  of  the  cliff, 
a  cave  whose  mouth  is  partly  closed  with  loose  stones  which 
have  fallen  from  the  roof,  or  from  the  summit  of  the  cliff. 
Out  of  this  mass  of  boulders  and  debris,  and  apparently  from 
crevices  between  the  strata  of  the  rock  alongside,  a  foam- 
crested  stream  bursts  forth,  "  along  a  line  of  thirty  feet,  a  full- 
born  river."  A  short  distance  from  its  source  this  flood  of 
seething  waters  is  collected  together  in  a  large  pool  and  thence 
becomes  a  swift  torrent,  roaring  and  dashing  over  the  rocks, 
and  gliding  amid  dense  thickets  of  oleander,  hawthorn  and 
cane,  until  it  is  lost  to  view  in  the  depths  of  a  dark  ravine. 
About  four  miles  south  of  Tell  el  Kady  the  Banias  joins  the 
Leddan.  A  mile  or  more  below,  the  Hasbany  flows  into  the 
bed  of  this  united  stream  and  here  the  Jordan  proper  begins  its 
course.  The  elevation  of  the  spring-head  at  Banias  is  1,080 
feet,  or  nearly  600  feet  higher  than  the  source  of  the  Leddan. 
The  Leddan  is  more  than  twice  the  size  of  the  Banias :  and  the 
Banias  is  more  than  twice  the  size  of  the  Hasbany.  The  stream 
from  the  fountain  at  Banias  is  the  clearest  of  all  and  its  site  is 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  259 

the  most  picturesque.  There  is  no  place  in  Palestine,  and 
there  are  but  few  places  perhaps  in  the  world,  where  so  many 
elements  of  grandeur  and  beauty  are  combined.  Dean  Stan- 
ley describes  it  as  "almost  a  Syrian  Tivoli  "  ;  Dr.  Robinson, 
as  "a  noble  fountain  unique"  in  its  setting ;  Dr.  Smith  as  a 
"  very  sanctuary  of  waters ' ' ;  Dr.  Thomson,  as  "one  of  Nature's 
grandest  temples,  whose  oak  glades  and  joyous  brooks,  happy 
birds  and  frisking  flocks,  all  bear  part  in  her  services  "  ;  and 
Dr.  Schaff,  as  "the  most  charming  landscape  in  all  Palestine, 
adorned  with  tropical  vegetation  of  flowers  and  trees,  and  musi- 
cal with  the  murmur  of  rivulets  and  cascades. ' ' 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  which  grew  up  around  this 
"  sanctuary  of  waters  "  can  still  be  traced  by  its  ruins,  most  of 
which  belong  to  the  Roman  period. 

Herod  the  Great  built  a  temple  of  white  marble  near  the 
fountain  in  honor  of  Augustus.  At  a  later  period  the  city  was 
rebuilt  and  "adorned  with  temples,  villas  and  palaces"  by 
Philip  the  Tetrarch,  who  named  it  Csesarea  Philippi.  The 
Castle  of  Shubeiah  which  overlooks  the  town  from  a  high  hill 
to  the  east,  is  by  far  the  most  extensive  ruin  in  this  region,  and 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  occupies  the  site  of  one 
of  the  most  ancient  fortresses  in  the  land.  It  is  the  "  Heidel- 
berg of  Syria,"  and  the  views  which  it  commands  over  the 
gorges  of  the  Hermons  and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Jordan  are 
unsurpassed. 

Near  the  close  of  His  public  ministry  our  Lord  entered  the 
coasts  of  Csesarea  Philippi,  and,  in  some  retired  nook  in  this 
restful  region,  dwelt  for  several  days  with  His  disciples.  Here, 
apart  from  the  crowds  which  thronged  Him  in  Galilee,  He  un- 
folded to  them  the  nature  of  His  redemptive  work  and  spake 
of  "the  decease  which  He  should  accomplish  at  Jerusalem." 
This  was  the  place  of  Peter's  confession ;  of  the  prophetic  an- 
nouncement concerning  the  Church ;  and  of  the  healing  of  the 
demoniac  child.  Every  circumstance  and  detail  of  the  story 
of  the  Evangelists  points  to  the  "high  mountain"  which 


260  The  Land  of  Israel 

towers  above  this  plain  as  the  place  where  Jesus  took  His  disci- 
ples apart,  and  was  transfigured  before  them.  (Matt.  xvi.  13- 
28,  xvii.  1-21  ;  Mark.  ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28;  2  Peter  i.  17.) 

Lake  Huleh  occupies  the  lower  portion  of  the  Huleh  basin. 
The  Jordan  enters  this  broader  expanse  of  its  channel  twelve 
miles  below  the  site  of  Dan.  The  lake  is  triangular  in  outline 
and  is  about  four  and  a  half  miles  in  length  by  three  in 
breadth.  The  base  of  the  triangle  is  the  northern  end  of  the 
lake,  the  exit  of  the  river  being  at  its  apex.  Between  the  junc- 
tion of  the  three  tributaries  of  the  Jordan  and  the  head  of  the 
lake  there  is  a  great  marsh  larger  than  the  body  of  the  lake  it- 
self; this  march  is  so  closely  shut  in  by  dense  masses  of  tall  canes 
and  papyrus  reeds  that  it  is  impossible,  as  the  Arabs  declare,  for 
even  a  wild  boar  to  make  its  way  to  the  water.  John  Mac- 
gregor,  of  Rob  Roy  fame,  is  the  only  man,  in  all  probability, 
who  has  ever  explored  the  interior  of  this  great  swamp :  and  in 
order  to  do  this,  he  was  obliged  to  enter  the  channel  from  the 
open  country  above.  The  canoe  in  which  he  made  this  mem- 
orable journey,  was  launched  at  first  on  the  Hasbany  at  its 
source.  Floating  down  this  stream  until  he  reached  the  plain, 
Mr.  Macgregor  transferred  his  little  boat  to  the  pool  at  Dan, 
and  thence,  by  skillful  paddling  and  shooting  of  rapids  with  oc- 
casional lifts  over  the  shallows,  descended  to  the  basin  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

West  of  the  lake  is  a  rich  farming  region  which  extends  to 
the  foot  of  the  mountains.  On  this  plain  by  the  Waters  of 
Merom  the  decisive  battle  was  fought  between  Joshua  and  the 
confederate  kings  of  the  north.  (Josh.  xi.  5-8.)  The  surface 
of  Lake  Huleh  is  only  seven  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  round  numbers  the  descent  from  the  upper 
source  of  the  Jordan  to  this  lake  a  distance  of  twenty-four 
miles  is  1,700  feet;  from  the  source  at  Banias — one  half  the 
distance — it  is  1,100  feet.  The  semi-tropical  climate  and  lux- 
uriant vegetation  of  this  upper  strrtrh  of  the  Jordan  valley 
present  a  strong  contrast  to  the  almost  perpetual  line  of 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  261 

snow,  within  easy  range  of  vision,  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Hermon. 

The  following  description  of  this  region,  viewed  as  a  whole, 
is  given  by  Dr.  Thomson  : 

The  Huleh — lake,  and  marsh,  and  plain,  and  fruitful  field — is  un- 
rivalled in  beauty  in  this  land,  no  matter  when  or  from  what  point  beheld 
— from  the  heights  of  Hermon,  the  hills  of  Naphtali,  the  plain  of  Ijon, 
or  the  groves  of  Banias,  in  midwinter  or  midsummer,  in  the  evening  or 
in  the  morning.  It  lies  like  a  vast  carpet,  with  patterns  of  every  shade, 
and  shape  and  size,  and  laced  all  over  with  countless  silver  threads :  those 
laughing  brooks  of  the  Huleh,  now  revealed,  now  concealed ;  here  weav- 
ing silver  tissue  into  cunning  complications  with  graceful  curves,  and 
there  expanding  into  broad  and  gleaming  patterns,  like  full-faced  mirrors. 
The  plain  is  clothed  with  flocks,  and  the  solemn  stork  is  there,  and  herds 
of  black  buffalo  bathe  in  the  pools.  The  lake  is  alive  with  fowls,  the 
trees  with  birds,  and  the  air  with  bees.  At  all  times  fair,  but  fairest  of  all 
in  early  spring  and  at  eventide  when  the  golden  sunlight  pervading  the 
ethereal  amber  fades  into  the  fathomless  blue  of  heaven.1 

The  darker  side  to  this  picture,  in  which  "  every  prospect 
pleases,"  may  be  seen  in  the  wretched  and  homeless  condition 
of  the  nominal  possessors  of  this  bountiful  region.  Owing 
partly  to  the  insecurity  of  life  and  property, .  and  partly  to  the 
deadly  malarial  exhalations  from  earth  and  water,  the  plain 
does  not  have  a  single  permanent  habitation  throughout  its  ex- 
tent, except  in  the  border  village  of  Banias. 

There  are  said  to  be  forty  Arab  villages  in  this  lowland  dis- 
trict, but  their  inhabitants  are  tenants  at  will  and  the  houses 
are  flimsy  constructions  of  papyrus  reeds  and  mud. 

2.  The  Descent  between  the  Lakes. — The  distance  in  a 
direct  line  between  the  lake  of  Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Galilee  is 
eleven  miles.  About  two  miles  below  Lake  Huleh  the  river  is 
crossed  by  an  ancient  bridge,  called  by  the  Arabs,  Jisr  Benat 
Yacub  (the  Bridge  of  Jacob's  Daughters).  This  bridge  is  a 
substantial  structure  with  three  pointed  arches.  A  ruined  Khan 
at  its  eastern  end,  and  the  remains  of  an  old  road  beyond  it, 
*  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  478, 


The  Land  of  Israel 


paved  with  basaltic  blocks,  indicate  that  this  has  been  the 
crossing  place  of  one  of  the  main  routes  from  Galilee  to  the 
East  for  centuries.  The  bridge  itself  may  not  be  older  than 
the  fifteenth  century,  but  it  unquestionably  marks  the  site  of  one 
of  the  oldest  and  most  notable  fords  of  the  Jordan.  Here,  in 
all  probability  Saul  of  Tarsus,  breathing  out  threatening  and 
slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord,  crossed  the  Jordan 
as  he  journeyed  to  Damascus. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  river  at  this  point  is  on  a  level 
with  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Above  it  lies  the  upper  basin  of 
the  Jordan  whose  elevation  ranges  from  sea  level  to  1,100  feet; 
below  it  the  Great  Rift  of  the  Lower  Jordan  begins  its  descent 
to  the  extraordinary  depth  of  1,300  feet.  Here  the  hills  of 
Naphtali  close  in  toward  the  east  obstructing  the  continuity  of 
the  channel  and  contracting  the  river-bed  to  a  narrow  depres- 
sion or  gorge,  on  its  eastward  side.  Down  this  gorge  the  Jor- 
dan plunges  in  a  succession  of  rapids,  or  cascades  for  a  dis- 
tance of  six  or  seven  miles  to  the  level  of  the  lower  basin, 
some  two  miles  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  descent  for 
this  distance  is  more  than  ninety  feet  to  the  mile.  On  a  ledge, 
at  one  point  on  this  line  of  descent,  we  caught  a  glimpse  of  the 
Lake  of  Galilee  and  the  deep  trench  below  it,  before  the  waters 
of  Merom  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Jordan  had  passed  out 
of  view. 

The  banks  of  the  river  in  this  part  of  its  course  are  "  fringed 
with  an  extraordinary  growth  of  oleander,  which  at  times  com- 
pletely conceals  it  from  view ;  and  the  scenery  is  among  the 
wildest  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Holy  Land." 

3.  The  Galilean  Basin. — The  length  of  this  trough-like 
depression  does  not  exceed  fifteen  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
is  less  than  nine  miles.  Its  maximum  depth  below  sea-level  is 
838  feet.  The  lake,  which  lies  deep  down  in  this  secluded 
basin  (682  feet),  is  twelve  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  not  over 
seven  miles  at  its  widest  point.  It  is  lyre-shaped  in  outline 
"  with  the  bulge  to  the  northwest." 


°"          JeaofGahlee', 
.  FromOrdftanceSurrey 


264: 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  mountains  on  the  eastern  and  western  sides  have  differ- 
ent characteristics  which  are  apparent  at  a  glance.  On  the  east 
they  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  2,000  feet,  and  the  general  im- 
pression is  that  of  a  bare  rugged  wall  of  rock,  cleft  here  and 
there  by  deeply-gashed  torrent  beds.  In  these  there  are  occa- 
sional patches  of  green,  but  the  prevailing  colors  are  the  red 
and  brown  of  the  vast  masses  of  bare  basaltic  rock.  On  the 
western  side  the  range  trends  gradually  toward  the  lake.  It  is 
broken  into  rounded  hills  and  grass-covered  slopes,  which,  in 
some  places,  terminate  abruptly,  as  they  approach  the  margin 
of  the  sea.  The  hills  on  this  side,  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
length  of  the  water-basin,  come  down  close  to  the  beach,  leav- 
ing only  a  narrow  "  ribbon  of  coast."  To  the  northwest  there 
is  a  notable  recession  in  which  lies  the  crescent-shaped  plain  of 
Gennesaret.  It  is  nearly  four  miles  long  and  a  mile  or  more 
in  breadth  at  its  widest  point.  It  is  watered  by  several  streams 
now  running  to  waste,  which  in  former  days  were  so  utilized  as 
to  irrigate  every  portion  of  the  plain.  In  the  period  of  the 
Romans,  Gennesaret  was  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the  world. 
Its  climate  was  a  "harmonious  blending  of  the  seasons  ";  its 
orchards  and  gardens  yielded  their  luscious  fruits  in  tropical 
profusion  ;  its  grapes  and  figs  ripened  "  during  ten  months  in 
the  year  "  ;  and  its  cultivated  fields  produced  the  finest  of  the 
wheat. 

Over  most  of  its  extent,  at  the  present  time,  Gennesaret  has 
reverted  to  its  primitive  condition.  Back  of  its  silvery  strand 
— made  up  of  myriads  of  tiny  shells — an  almost  continuous 
hedge  of  oleanders  holds  back  a  wild  tangle  of  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, which  gives  evidence,  not  to  be  disputed,  of  the  won- 
derful fertility  of  the  soil  and  its  adaptation  to  the  growth  of 
plants  from  widely  differing  climes. 

On  this  side  of  the  lake,  in  the  Saviour's  day,  towns  and 
villages  were  thickly  clustered  on  plain  and  hillside,  and  every 
foot  of  land  was  carefully  cultivated.  On  the  "  other  side  "  the 
towns  were  few :  the  only  suitable  locations  for  them  being  at 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  265 

the  mouths  of  the  wadies  which  came  down  from  the  plateau 
above.  It  was  a  region  of  "  desert  places  "where  our  Lord 
often  sought  retirement  and  rest  when  wearied  with  His  arduous 
labors  amid  the  crowds  that  thronged  Him  on  the  western 
side.  (Mark  iv.  35,  36,  v.  21 ;  Matt.  xiv.  13-15,  etc.) 

It  is  a  common  impression  that  the  hills  on  the  eastern  side 
press  down  closely  to  the  margin  of  the  lake,  but  this  is  not  the 
case.  Except  at  the  ruined  site  of  Gergesa  (Khersa)  the  hills 
recede  for  fully  one  half  of  a  mile ;  and,  at  the  upper  end  is 
the  broad  plain,  known  as  the  Batihah,  which  is  nearly  as  large 
and  as  fertile  as  the  plain  of  Gennesaret.  The  passage-way 
along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Lake  from  Gennesaret  is  inter- 
rupted by  cliffs  which  push  into  the  water,  and  also  by  swamps 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  numerous  bays  on  this  portion  of  the 
coast.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  as  in  former  times  to  "take 
shipping"  for  this  part  of  the  journey,  going  or  returning. 
(John  vi.  24.)  The  water  of  the  lake  is  a  deep  rich  blue,  and 
still,  as  of  old,  it  is  noted  for  the  abundance  and  variety  of  its 
fish. 

The  Old  Testament  name  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee  was  the  Sea 
of  Chinnereth.  (Num.  xxxiv.  n;  Josh.  xi.  2 ;  i  Kings  xv. 
20.)  In  the  Roman  period  it  was  also  called  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias, (John  vi.  i),  and  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.  (Luke  v.  i.) 

This  inland  lake  and  the  region  around  it  have  been  made 
blessedly  familiar  by  the  story  of  the  Evangelists.  It  was  the 
home  of  many  of  the  disciples  as  well  as  the  favorite  dwelling- 
place  of  Jesus.  No  other  spot  on  earth  awakens  so  many  hal- 
lowed recollections  of  His  lowly,  unselfish  life  and  beneficent 
ministry.  Here  by  mountain  side  and  lake  side,  and  in  the 
crowded  synagogue,  He  preached  the  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom, 
speaking  in  parables  for  the  most  part,  and  drawing  His  illus- 
trations of  spiritual  truths  from  familiar  objects  around  Him  on 
land  and  sea. 

Here  He  healed  the  sick ;  cleansed  the  lepers ;  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  blind ;  cast  out  demons ;  calmed  the  raging  of  the 


266  The  Land  of  Israel 

winds  and  waves  by  a  word ;  walked  upon  the  sea  to  rescue 
His  imperilled  disciples ;  comforted  the  sorrowing ;  gave  rest 
to  the  weary  and  heavy  laden ;  and  awaked  from  the  sleep  of 
death  the  little  daughter  of  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue.  The 
story  of  Galilee,  in  a  word,  is  the  story  of  the  larger  part  of  the 
public  ministry  of  Jesus.  (Matt,  chaps,  iv.-xviii. ;  Mark  i.-ix. ; 
Luke  iv.-ix. ;  John  vi.  and  xxi.)  It  has  been  said  with  truth 
that  there  is  nothing  amid  these  surroundings  "  to  distract  our 
thoughts  from  that  Divine  Presence  which  here  abode  in  human 
form.  One  great  memory  lingers  undisturbed  amongst  these  hills 
and  valleys.  The  bustle  of  modern  life  and  the  squalid  misery 
and  degradation  of  the  eastern  peasantry  would  equally  clash 
with  the  sacred,  tender  associations  of  the  spot  where  '  most 
of  His  mighty  works  were  done,'  most  of  His  '  gracious  words ' 
were  spoken.  The  stage  is  empty,  and  there  is  nothing  to  pre- 
vent our  peopling  it  with  hallowed  memories  of  Him  who  spake 
as  '  never  man  spake, '  who  was  Himself  '  the  way,  the  truth, 
and  the  life."'1 

Here  the  words  of  McCheyne  most  fitly  express  the  Christh 
pilgrim's  thought : 

"  How  pleasant  to  me  thy  deep  blue  wave, 

O  Sea  of  Galilee; 

For  the  glorious  One  who  came  to  save, 
Hath  often  stood  by  thee. 

"  Graceful  around  thee  the  mountains  meet, 

Thou  calm  reposing  sea, 
But,  oh,  far  more  !  the  beautiful  feet 
Of  Jesus  walked  o'er  thee." 

Towns  on  the  Coasts  of  Galilee. — Only  two  of  the 
towns  or  cities  mentioned  by  the  Evangelists  are  now  inhabited. 
These  are  Tiberias  and  Magdala,  both  of  which  are  sadly 
changed  since  the  prosperous  days  of  the  Roman  period. 

Tiberias  is  situated  in  a  recession  of  the  hills  on  the  west- 

1  Holy  Fields — Doctor  Manning,  p.  196. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  267 

ern  shore  of  the  lake,  a  little  less  than  half  way  from  its  south- 
ern end.  A  mile  or  more  below  the  present  village  are  the 
celebrated  Hot  Springs,  which  made  this  portion  of  the  coast 
so  attractive  to  the  Romans.  The  city,  which  once  extended 
to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  springs,  was  built,  or  possibly 
rebuilt,  by  Herod  Antipas  and  named  by  him  for  the  Emperor 
Tiberius.  The  ruins  of  this  Herodian  city  cover  acres  of 
ground  along  the  shore,  and  recent  researches  have  shown  that 
the  enclosing  wall  was  nearly  three  miles  in  length.  This  wall 
included  a  citadel,  580  feet  above  the  lake,  on  a  declivity  be- 
hind the  city.  In  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  "a  pile  of  noble 
buildings  rising  from  the  level  of  the  lake  behind  a  low,  strong 
sea  wall.  Theatres,  amphitheatres,  Forum,  praetorium,  tem- 
ples, synagogues,  baths,  rich  houses — all  crowned  by  the  lofty 
fortress  looking  down  upon  the  city."  l  There  is  no  mention 
of  any  visit  made  to  this  city  by  our  Lord  or  His  disciples,  but 
He  must  often  have  been  near  it,  and  its  massive  buildings  run- 
ning up  the  slope  of  the  hill  were  frequently  before  Him  as  a 
picture  of  worldly  magnificence  when  He  sailed  back  and  forth 
upon  the  lake. 

Magdala  is  represented  by  the  modern  village  of  Mejdel 
(Migdol  or  watch-tower)  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Plain  of  Gen- 
nesaret.  The  name  is  mentioned  in  Matt.  xv.  39,  but  the 
place  is  best  known  as  the  home  of  Mary,  the  devoted  friend 
of  Jesus,  to  whom  He  first  showed  Himself  after  His  resurrec- 
tion. (John  xx.  1 6-1 8.) 

Capernaum. — The  site  of  this  city,  so  highly  favored  in 
point  of  privilege  during  the  period  of  the  Galilean  ministry, 
has  long  been  in  dispute.  The  most  probable  location,  in  view 
of  all  the  evidence  at  present  attainable,  is  at  the  northern  end 
of  the  Gennesaret  plain  on  a  little  swell  of  ground  directly 
south  of  Khan  Minyeh. 

Another  location,  whose  claims  have  been  earnestly  advo- 
cated by  eminent  authorities  is  Tell  Hum  at  the  end  of  the 
JThe  City  and  the  Land,  p.  112. 


268 


The  Land  of  Israel 


lake,  some  two  and  a-half  miles  northeast  of  Khan  Minyeh. 
At  this  place  there  are  extensive  ruins,  the  most  conspicuous  of 
which  has  been  found  to  be  a  Jewish  synagogue  of  white  lime- 
stone. On  one  of  the  large  blocks  near  by  there  is  a  beauti- 
fully engraved  representation  of  the  "pot  of  manna,"  which 
for  centuries  had  been  preserved  as  a  memorial  in  the  ark  of 
the  covenant.  (Heb.  ix.  4.) 

Aside  from  these  ruins,  which  without  doubt  indicate  the  ex- 
istence of  a  prosperous  city  of  the  Roman  period,  there  are  no 
special  features  of  the  place  or  its  surroundings  which  directly 
suggest  its  identification  with  Capernaum. 

The  main  points  of  the  argument  in  favor  of  Khan  Minyeh 
have  been  briefly  summed  up  by  Dr.  Merrill  as  follows : 

At  Capernaum  there  was  (i)  a  garrison.  For  this  there  would  naturally 
be  some  fort  or  castle,  of  which  there  should  be  remains.  There  was  (2) 
a  customhouse ;  and  this  would  be  on  the  road  leading  northward  past 
the  Lake  to  Damascus.  There  are  no  traces  of  there  ever  having  been  a 
road  leading  past  Tell  Hum,  or  existing  anywhere  in  the  angle  formed  by 
the  river  and  the  north  end  of  the  Lake.  At  Khan  Minyeh  there  are 
traces  of  a  Roman  road,  and  it  is  still  in  use.  Tell  Hum  is  fully  two 
miles  distant  from  this  road.  This  road  coming  from  the  north  would 
first  touch  the  lake  at  Khan  Minyeh,  and  the  customs  stations  being  there, 
it  would  accommodate  both  the  lake  and  the  road.  The  garrison  would 
be  at  the  same  place  as  the  customhouse.  No  remains  of  a  fort  of  any 
kind  exist  at  Tell  Hum,  while  the  hill  overhanging  Khan  Minyeh  be- 
tween the  old  Roman  road  just  referred  to  and  the  present  road  which 
follows  the  trench  in  the  brow  of  the  bluff,  has  been  shaped  artificially, 
and  gives  every  appearance  of  having  been  occupied  by  an  ancient  castle. 
I  attach  no  importance  to  the  ruins  at  Khan  Minyeh  that  are  still  visible 
above  ground ;  but  I  have  seen  enough  to  convince  me  that  a  town  of 
considerable  size  is  buried  there.1 

The  principal  argument  advanced  by  Magregor  in  favor  of 
Khan  Minyeh  is  its  open,  safe  harbor  to  which  storm-tossed 
vessels  would  naturally  be  directed ;  while  at  Tell  Hum  there 
is  no  secure  harborage  and  not  even  a  safe  landing-place  in 
rough  weather. 

»  Butler's  Bible  Wock,  p.  673. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan          81 

To  these  may  *be  added  the  argument  emphasized  by  Dr. 
Robinson  that  Tell  Hum  lies  outside  the  definite  and  well- 
known  district,  known  as  Gennesaret,  or  the  plain  of  Gennesa- 
ret,  in  which,  according  to  the  Evangelists,  Capernaum  was 
situated.  (Matt.  xiv.  34;  Mark  vi.  53;  John  vi.  17-25.) 

For  Khan  Minyeh,  says  Keim,  the  whole  situation  vouches  in  a  high 
degree.  Here  is  the  plain  of  Gennesar,  and  here  too  it  leaves  off,  for  di- 
rectly north  of  it  stretches  the  mountain-chain  which  had  retired  in  a  half- 
circle  to  make  room  for  that  fair  district,  and  abuts  again  upon  the  lake ; 
so  much  so,  that  it  is  only  by  a  narrow  and  difficult  pathway  that  the 
rocks  are  artificially  penetrated,  and  the  great  road  to  Damascus  on  leav- 
ing the  Khan  strikes  straight  up  hill  and  inland.  Here  there  is  water 
and  vegetation.  Close  at  hand  are  several  springs.  Along  the  lake-side 
is  a  strip  of  luxuriant  green,  consisting  of  grass  and  clover,  an  emerald 
meadow-carpet ;  "  no  other  in  Palestine  so  green  " ;  the  shore  is  adorned 
with  a  tall  growth  of  sedge.  Numerous  herds  and  flocks  graze  on  this 
part  of  the  plain  ;  indeed  it  is  just  the  pastures  of  Minyeh  which,  accord- 
ing to  Burckhardt,  have  become  proverbial  for  their  richness  among  the 
dwellers  in  the  neighboring  districts.  Finally,  the  district  of  Minyeh 
served  as  a  harborage ;  a  half-circle  seems  to  mark  the  harbor,  which  has 
become  choked  up  in  the  lapse  of  time,  sheltered  by  the  mountain  promon- 
tory from  all  the  northern  winds ;  here  the  wood  from  the  east  shore  is 
still  landed  for  Acco  (Acre).1 

Capernaum  was  exalted  in  point  of  privilege  above  all  the 
cities  of  Galilee.  It  was  the  home  of  Jesus,  and  of  His  inner 
circle  of  disciples,  for  nearly  three  years.  Matthew  speaks  of 
it  as  "His  own  city."2  It  was  the  scene  of  many  of  the  mir- 
acles of  healing  ;  "the  central  pulpit  of  our  Lord's  teaching  "  ; 
and  the  birthplace  of  the  Christian  Church.  Two  at  least  of 
the  Apostles,  Peter  and  Matthew,  occupied  houses  in  Caper- 
naum which  were  always  open  to  the  Master,  and  at  some 
period  in  His  earlier  ministry  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  trans- 
ferred her  residence  from  Nazareth  to  Capernaum.  (Mark  i. 
29,  ii.  14,  15;  Matt.  xii.  46;  John  ii.  12.)  Three  of  the 
Evangelists  have  given  us  a  record  of  the  blessed  ministries 

1  Butler's  Bible  Work,  p.  672.      z  Matt.  ix.  I. 


2TO 


The  Land  of  Israel 


which  filled  one  Sabbath  day  at  Capernaum,  and  so  deeply 
were  the  people  impressed  with  His  gracious  words  and 
miracles  of  healing  that  at  even  all  the  city  was  gathered  at 
the  door  of  Simon's  house ;  and  "all  they  that  had  any  sick 
with  divers  diseases  brought  them  unto  Him ;  and  He  laid  His 
hands  on  everyone  of  them,  and  healed  them."  (Matt. 
viii.  14-17;  Mark  i.  21-34;  Luke  iv.  33—41.) 

Bethsaida  of  Galilee,  which  was  evidently  near  to  Caper- 
naum, (Mark  vi.  45  ;  John  vi.  17),  was  probably  situated  on  the 
other  side  of  the  headland  which  cuts  off  Gennesaret  from  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Lake. 

Some  ruined  buildings  and  an  octagonal  fountain  about  a 
mile  north  of  Khan  Minyeh  mark  the  site  of  the  old  town. 
The  modern  village,  known  as  Et  Tabiga,  is  inhabited  by 
fishermen  and  the  little  bay  in  its  front  is  still  the  favorite  fish- 
ing-ground of  the  lake.  This  city  was  the  birthplace  of  Peter, 
Andrew  and  Philip. 

Bethsaida  Julias  was  on  the  plain  of  Batihah  east  of  the 
Jordan  and  not  far  from  the  upper  end  of  the  lake.  It  was  also 
originally  a  fishing  village,  but  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city 
by  Philip  the  Tetrarch  who  enlarged  it  and  gave  to  it  the 
name  of  the  Emperor's  daughter — Julias.  On  a  grassy  slope 
near  this  place  Christ  fed  the  five  thousand  (Luke  ix.  10-17); 
and  on  one  of  the  mountains  near  by  He  was  alone  praying 
when  the  storm  arose  which  delayed  the  progress  and  imperilled 
the  lives  of  the  disciples  who  were  heading  toward  Bethsaida 
of  Galilee.  (Mark  vi.  45,  46;  John  vi.  15-17.) 

Chorazin. — The  only  clue  to  the  location  of  this  city  is 
given  in  the  prophetic  announcement  of  its  doom.  (Matt.  xi. 
20-24;  Luke  x.  13.  In  this  sentence  of  condemnation 
Bethsaida  and  Capernaum  are  included.  Hence  the  inference 
that  the  three  cities  were  near  the  sea,  and  so  closely  grouped 
together  as  to  have  practically  the  same  advantages  in  connec- 
tion with  the  beneficent  ministry  of  Christ.  On  the  assump- 
tion that  the  other  cities  of  this  group  have  been  correctly 


The  Valley  of  .he  Jordan 

located,  Chorazin  would  fall  naturally  into  place  at  Tell  Hum. 
This  identification  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Robinson  and  has 
been  approved  by  Merrill  and  other  eminent  explorers.  The 
discovery  of  a  ruined  heap  about  two  and  a-half  miles  north 
of  Tell  Hum  called  Kerazeh  has  suggested  another  possible 
site,  which  has  found  favor  with  some  of  the  leading  authori- 
ties. While  the  name  is  practically  the  same,  the  location  is 
objectionable  because  of  its  isolation  from  the  main  lines  of 
travel  and  from  the  prosperous  cities  by  the  lake-side.  It  is 
possible  also  that  the  name  was  transferred  to  this  inland  town 
after  the  destruction  of  the  old  city  by  the  Lake. 

Gergesa. — The  ruins  of  a  town  called  Gersa  or  Khersa  on 
the  eastern  shore,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady  Semakh,  have 
been  identified  by  Dr.  Thomson  with  the  ancient  city  of  Ger- 
gesa, which  gave  its  name  to  a  limited  district  around  it. 
(Matt.  viii.  28.)  This  was  included  in  a  larger  district  of 
which  Gadara,  an  important  city  eight  miles  away,  was  the 
capital ;  hence  it  was  said  to  be  "in  the  country  of  the  Gada- 
renes,  which  is  over  against  Galilee."  (Luke  viii.  26.)  Gersa 
is  four  or  five  miles  from  the  upper  end  of  the  lake  and  almost 
opposite  Magdala.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  this  town  and 
landing-place  was  the  scene  of  the  healing  of  the  fierce  demo- 
niacs and  the  destruction  of  the  herd  of  swine.  (Matt.  viii. 

28-34.) 
Dr.  Thomson  describes  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  place 

as  follows : 

In  Gersa  we  have  a  position  which  fulfills  the  requirements  of  the 
narratives,  and  with  a  name  so  near  that  in  Matthew  as  to  be  in  itself 
a  strong  corroboration  of  the  identification.  The  site  is  within  a  few  rods 
of  the  shore,  and  a  mountain  rises  directly  above  it,  in  which  are  ancient 
tombs ;  out  of  some  one  of  them  the  man  possessed  of  the  devils  may 
have  issued  to  meet  Jesus.  The  lake  is  so  near  the  base  of  the 
mountain  that  a  herd  of  swine  feeding  above  it,  seized  with  a  sudden 
panic,  would  rush  madly  down  the  declivity,  those  behind  tumbling  over 
and  thrusting  forward  those  before,  and,  as  there  is  no  space  to  recover 
on  the  narrow  plain  between  the  base  of  the  mountain  and  the  lake,  they 


272  The  La.  d  of  Israel 

would  crowd  headlong  into  the  water  and  perish.  .  .  .  Farther  south 
the  plain  becomes  so  broad  that  the  herd  might  have  stopped  and  recoiled 
from  the  lake,  whose  domain  they  would  not  willingly  invade. 

To  this  description  Dr.  Thomson  adds  the  fact  that  wild  hogs 
abound  at  this  place,  and  in  a  state  as  wild  and  fierce  as 
though  they  were  still  "possessed."  l 

The  deepest  furrow  in  the  hills  on  this  side  is  the 
Wady  Fik,  which  enters  the  lake  three  miles  below  Gersa. 
On  the  precipitous  heights  above  are  the  ruins  of  Gamala 
(Kulat-el  Husn),  a  well-nigh  impregnable  stronghold,  famous 
for  the  desperate  resistance  its  defenders  made  to  the  Romans. 
The  mouth  of  the  Wady  is  almost  directly  opposite  the  city  of 
Tiberias.  The  road  from  Bethshan  to  Damascus  passes  up 
through  this  cleft  to  the  plateau  above.  The  railroad 
to  Damascus  runs  up  the  lake  to  Gersa  and  thence  east- 
ward by  Wady  Semakh. 

The  village  of  Semakh  on  the  southeastern  shore  of  the  lake 
was  formerly  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  Hippos,  one  of  the 
cities  of  Decapolis,  but  later  research  has  recovered  it  at  a  site 
known  as  Susiyeh,  the  Arabic  equivalent  of  Hippos.  Tarichcea, 
famous  for  its  fisheries  and  for  ship-building,  is  probably  iden- 
tical with  a  ruined  site  now  called  Kerak  on  the  south- 
western shore  near  the  outgo  of  the  Jordan.  This  city 
is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  is  fully  described  by 
Josephus  who  fortified  it  to  meet  an  attack  of  the  Romans. 

4.  The  Ghor. — The  Arabs  use  this  term  to  designate  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Jordan,  or  that  portion  which  extends  from 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  line  of  cliffs  beyond  the  southern 
border  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  its  popular  usage  by  writers  who 
have  adopted  the  term,  it  applies  only  to  the  deep  trench  or 
sunken  valley  between  the  lakes.  This  section  is  sixty-five 
miles  in  length.  In  breadth  it  varies  from  four  to  fourteen 
miles.  Its  contractions  and  expansions  have  been  briefly  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Smith  as  follows  : 

i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  355. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  273 

For  thirteen  miles  south  of  the  lake  the  breadth  is  hardly  more  than 
four  miles,  then  it  expands  to  six  or  seven  in  the  Plain  of  Bethshan, 
which  rises  by  terraces  toward  the  level  of  Esdraelon.  Ten  miles  south 
of  Bethshan  the  Samarian  hills  press  eastward,  and  for  the  next  thirteen 
the  river  runs  closely  by  their  feet,  and  the  valley  is  three  miles  wide. 
Again  the  Samarian  hills  withdraw,  and  the  valley  widens  first  to  eight 
miles  and  then  gradually  to  fourteen,  which  is  the  breadth  at  Jericho. 
What  we  have  therefore  between  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea  is  a  long, 
narrow  vale  twice  expanding — at  Bethshan  and  Jericho — to  the  dimen- 
sions of  a  plain.1 

Through  the  last  named  expansion  the  river  runs  almost  in 
the  middle,  separating  it  into  the  Plain  of  Jericho  on  the  one 
side,  and  its  counterpart,  the  plain  of  Shittim  on  the  other, 
which  the  Arabs  now  call  Ghor-es  Seisaban.  Above  this  ex- 
pansion,— designated  by  the  Old  Testament  writers  as  the 
Ciccar  or  Circuit  (Gen.  xiii.  10-12) — except  for  a  short  dis- 
tance in  the  vicinity  of  Bethshan,  the  strip  of  plain  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Jordan  is  much  wider  than  that  on  the  western 
side. 

Climate  and  Products  of  the  Ghor. — This  portion  of 
the  Jordan  valley  has  been  aptly  described  as  an  enormous  hot- 
house. It  is  a  region  of  never-ending  summer.  Cold  winds 
sweep  over  the  mountain  ridges  which  border  it  and  snow  rests 
at  times  on  their  summits,  but  in  this  sheltered  groove  far  be- 
low the  level  of  the  sea,  frost  and  snow  are  alike  unknown. 
The  products  of  its  lower  levels,  especially  on  the  eastern  side, 
correspond  with  those  in  the  equatorial  belts  and  rank  vegeta- 
tion may  be  seen  wherever  water  reaches  its  fruitful  soil.  The 
only  exception  to  this  tropical  luxuriance  is  the  portion  touched 
by  the  salt  marshes  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Tributaries  of  the  Jordan. — The  two  principal  affluents 
of  the  Jordan  which  enter  the  valley  from  the  east  are  the  Yar- 
muk  (Jarmuk)  or  Hieromax  and  the  Jabbok.  The  Yarmuk 
joins  the  Jordan  four  miles  below  its  outgo  from  the  lake ;  and 

i  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  482. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  Jabbok  about  twenty  miles  from  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  On  the  west  there  are  two  principal  affluents  also,  —  the 
Wady  Farah  and  the  Wady  Kelt.  The  former  coming  from 
the  plateau  near  Shechem  runs  for  several  miles  nearly  parallel 
with  the  Jordan,  joining  it  some  six  or  seven  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Jabbok.  The  latter  crosses  the  plain  of  Jericho 
and  enters  the  Jordan  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth. 
Places  of  special  interest. 

(1)  Abel    Meholah    (Meadow  of  the  Dance)  has  been 
placed  by  Conder  at  Ain  Helweh,  ten  miles  south  of  Bethshan. 
It  was  one  of  the  places  to  which  the  Midianites  fled  (Judg. 
vii.    22),  and  the  place   of  Elisha's  residence  before  he  was 
called  to  the  prophetic  office,   (i  Kings  xix.  16.) 

(2)  Kurn  Sartaba.  —  The  most  conspicuous  landmark  in 
the  Jordan  valley  is  a  lofty  conical  peak  called  the  Kurn  or 
"Horn"  of  Sartaba.     Its  position  is  on  the  west  side  of  the 
valley  near  the  junction   of  the  Wady  Farah  with  the  Jordan. 
"  Its    summit,    2,400    feet   above   the   bed   of  the  valley,   is 
capped  by  a  cone   270   feet  high,  with  steep  smooth  sides  like 
those  of  the  so-called  Frank  mountain  near  Bethlehem."1     A 
mass  of  ruins  on  the  summit  indicated  that  this  apparently  in- 
accessible height  had  at  one  time  been  fortified  as  a  stronghold. 
It  was  also  used,  according  to  the  Talmud,  as  an  observatory 
along  the  line  of  selected  mountains  between  Jerusalem  and 
the  plateau   east  of  the  Jordan,   on  which  beacon-fires   were 
kindled  to  announce  the  appearance  of  the  new  moon. 

(3)  Adam.  —  The  site  of  this  city  was  probably  at  or  near 
the  Damieh  crossing  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok.     When 
Israel  passed  over  Jordan   it  is  said    "  that  the  waters  which 
came  down  from  above  stood  and  rose  up  upon  an  heap  very 
far  from  the  city  Adam,  that  is  beside  Zaretan."     (Josh.  iii. 
1  6.)     The  site  of  Zaretan  has  not  been  definitely  located,  but 
the  district  of  Zaretan  extended  from  Abel  Meholah  to  Succoth. 

(4)  Succoth  (place  of  lxx>ths)  has  been  identified  with 

1  Tent  Life,  p.  224. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  275 

Tell  Dar'ala  about  a  mile  north  of  the  Damieh  ford  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Jordan.  This  identification  rests  mainly  upon  a 
statement  of  the  Talmud  that  Succoth,  in  the  later  periods  of 
Jewish  history  was  called  Tarala,  the  equivalent  of  the  present 
name  Dar'ala.  At  this  place  Jacob  dwelt  for  a  time  on  his 
homeward  journey  from  the  east,  and  constructed  booths  for 
his  cattle.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  16,  17.)  The  brass  foundries  of  Solo- 
mon were  in  "  the  clay  ground  of  the  plain  of  Jordan  between 
Succoth  and  Zarthan  "  (Zaretan).  (i  Kings  vii.  46.) 

(5)  Jericho. — The  site  of  ancient  Jericho — the  city  of 
palm-trees — is  indicated  by  a  large  mound  (Tell  es  Sultan)  on 
the  western  border  of  the  plain,  about  six  miles  from  the 
Jordan.  The  waters  of  the  Wady  Kelt  flow  out  from  the 
mountains  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  the  tell.  A  famous 
fountain  (Ain  es  Sultan)  issues  from  the  eastern  base  of  the 
mound,  and  was  doubtless  used  for  irrigation  of  the  plain  as 
well  as  for  the  supply  of  the  city.  An  early,  and  a  generally 
accepted  tradition,  has  identified  this  with  the  fountain  whose 
waters  were  miraculously  healed  by  Elisha  at  the  intercession 
of  the  people  of  Jericho.  (2  Kings  ii.  19-22.)  Dr.  Bliss  made 
a  brief  visit  to  this  mound  in  1894,  and  found  fragments  of 
pre-Israelite  pottery,  similar  to  some  of  the  types  found  at  Tell 
el  Hesy,  and  traces  of  a  mud-brick  wall  in  situ.  "  I  confess," 
he  says,  "that  this  wall  sent  a  thrill  through  me.  If  Tell  es 
Sultan  is  a  mass  of  debris  caused  by  the  ruin  of  several  mud- 
brick  towns  over  the  first  Jericho,  then  there  is  good  reason  to 
suppose  that  this  wall,  uncovered  near  the  base  of  the  mound,  at 
its  edge,  is  the  very  wall  which  fell  before  the  eyes  of  the  Captain 
Joshua.  Tell  es  Sultan  is  a  long  mound,  over  1,200  feet  in 
length  from  north  to  south,  about  fifty  feet  high,  with  four 
superimposed  mounds,  the  highest  being  some  ninety  feet 
above  the  fountain,  which  is  at  the  east,  but  not  more  than 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  above  the  ground  at  the  west,  as  the  mound 
occurs  where  the  land  slopes  down  to  the  plain."1  In  the 
*  Quarterly,  P.  E.  F.,  July,  '94,  p.  176. 


276 


The  Land  of  Israel 


earlier  history  of  the  country  the  plain  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  Jericho  was  famous  for  its  fertility  and  tropical  luxuri- 
ance. Aqueducts,  the  ruins  of  which  may  still  be  seen  in 
several  places,  carried  abundant  supplies  of  water  from  the 
mountains  and  distributed  it  over  the  plain,  making  it  a  rich 
garden  spot,  or  as  Josephus  describes  it — "  a  divine  region.'*  It 
was  especially  noted  in  the  days  of  the  Roman  occupation  for 
its  almost  priceless  balsams ;  its  choice  varieties  of  palm  trees 
and  fragrant  spices.  The  princely  revenues  derived  from  this 
region  were  given  over  by  Mark  Antony  to  Cleopatra,  and  were 
afterward  recovered  for  himself  by  Herod  the  Great.  The 
revenues  of  this  plain  in  the  time  of  its  occupation  by  the 
Crusaders  were  valued  at  $25,000  per  annum.  These  were 
derived  from  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane. 

Jericho  was  a  noted  stronghold  of  the  Canaanites.  It  was 
the  first  place  invested  by  the  Israelites  after  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan.  (Josh.  chap,  vi.)  Its  first  mention  in  the  book  of 
Joshua  is  in  connection  with  the  visit  of  the  spies  (Josh.  chap, 
ii.)  :  and  when  the  city  fell  Rahab,  who  had  hidden  the  spies, 
and  all  her  household  were  saved.  (Josh  vi.  22-25.)  Jericho 
was  assigned  to  Benjamin,  but,  because  of  the  curse  pronounced 
upon  the  man  who  should  rebuild  it  (Josh.  vi.  26)  the  actual 
site  remained  for  a  long  time  a  desolation.  In  the  reign  of 
Ahab,  Kiel,  the  Bethelite,  incurred  the  curse  by  rebuilding  its 
walls,  (i  Kings  xvi.  34.)  One  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets 
was  established  at  Jericho,  and  it  was  frequently  honored  by  the 
visits  of  the  prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha.  To  this  school  Elijah 
came  on  his  last  round  of  visitation  just  before  his  translation. 
(2  Kings  ii.  4-7.)  On  the  return  of  Elisha  he  healed  the  bit- 
ter waters  of  the  fountain.  (2  Kings  ii.  19-22.) 

It  should  be  noted  that  there  were  three  Jerichos,  in  the  long 
history  of  this  region,  which  occupied  three  different  sites. 
The  site  of  the  first,  or  the  Old  Testament  Jericho  has  been  al- 
ready described.  The  site  of  the  Roman  Jericho  was  farther 
to  the  south  along  the  line  of  the  Wady  Kelt.  It  was  enlarged 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  277 

and  adorned  with  magnificent  buildings  by  Herod  the  Great, 
and  his  successor  Archelaus.  It  was  the  favorite  winter  resi- 
dence of  Herod  and  the  place  of  his  death.  The  position  of 
this  city,  at  the  opening  of  the  pass  leading  up  to  Jerusalem, 
made  it  a  place  of  general  rendezvous  for  the  pilgrim  bands 
going  to  and  returning  from  the  great  festivals  at  Jerusalem. 
On  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem  our  Lord  tarried  for  a  short 
time  in  this  Roman  city.  Here  He  healed  the  two  blind  men 
and  called  Zacchaeus  the  publican.  (Matt.  xx.  29-34;  Mark 
x.  46-52  ;  Luke  xix.  5.) 

"The  distinction  between  the  new  and  the  old  towns  may 
solve  the  seeming  discrepancy  between  Matthew  (xx.  30),  who 
makes  the  miracle  on  the  blind  to  be  when  Jesus  was  leaving 
Jericho,  and  Luke,  who  says  it  was  when  Jesus  was  come  nigh 
unto  Jericho  (xviii.  35)."  l 

Modern  Jericho,  known  as  Eriha  or  Riha,  occupies  a  site  nearly 
two  miles  from  Tell  es  Sultan  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Wady  Kelt 
It  is  a  small  Arab  village  of  rudely  constructed  houses.  A 
square  tower  dating  from  the  period  of  the  Crusades  is  the 
only  relic  of  antiquity  within  its  limits.  Quite  recently  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  place  has  been  improved  by  the  erection  of  a 
hotel  and  a  Russian  Hospice  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
pilgrims  who  swarm  past  it  year  by  year  to  the  fords  of  the 
Jordan.  The  town  itself  is  probably  not  older  than  the  twelfth 
century. 

(6)  Gilgal. — The  site  of  Gilgal  has  been  discovered  on  a 
slight  elevation  about  a  mile  east  of  the  village  of  Riha,  which 
still  bears  the  name  Jiljulieh.  The  only  remains  apparent  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  a  large  ruined  reservoir  by  the 
side  of  a  wide-spreading  tamarisk  tree,  and  several  rounded 
hillocks  of  artificial  construction.  In  some  of  these  mounds 
hewn  stone  pottery  and  flint  knives  have  been  found.2 

Gilgal  was  the  first  camping-place  of  the  Israelites  after  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan,  and  hither  the  twelve  stones  taken  from 

1  Fausset's  Bib.  Cyclopedia  Art  Jericho.  9  Ibid.,  p.  399. 


278  The  Land  of  Israel 

the  bed  of  the  river  were  brought  and  set  up  as  a  memorial. 
(Josh.  iv.  19-24.)  Here  also  the  covenant  of  circumcision  was 
renewed  and  "the  reproach  of  Egypt  rolled  off."  (Josh.  v. 
2-9. )  At  Gilgal  by  Divine  direction  the  Passover  was  celebrated 
and  from  this  date  the  manna  ceased.  (Josh.  v.  n,  12.) 

From  this  place  Joshua  went  up  by  night  to  the  help  of  the 
Gibeonites  (Josh.  x.  6-9),  and  the  narrative  of  the  conquest 
seems  to  imply  that  the  camp  at  Gilgal  continued  to  be  the 
rallying-point  of  the  tribes,  and  the  abode  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  until  the  removal  of  the  tabernacle  to  Shiloh. 

(7)  Beth-Hogla,  a  frontier  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii. 
19-22),  has  been  identified  with  Ain  Hajlah,  five  miles  south- 
east of  Jericho.     There  are  numerous  tells  on  the  plain  which 
have  not  as  yet  been  identified. 

(8)  "  The  Cities  of  the  Plain." — There  is  no  evidence 
in  the  Scriptures  on  which  to  base  the  supposition  that  the  five 
Canaanite  cities  of  the  plain — Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Ze- 
boim,  and  Zoar — were  situated  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea ;  nor   is  there  any  intimation  that  the  four  cities  which 
were  destroyed,  were  submerged  in  its  waters. 

On  the  contrary  it  is  implied,  if  not  directly  stated,  that  they 
were  in  the  plain  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Sea.  The  proofs 
which  bear  upon  this  point  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  said  (Gen.  xiii.  10-12)  that  Lot  beheld  all  the  plain  of  Jordan 
— in  which  these  cities  were  located — from  a  ridge  east  of  Bethel.     From 
this  ridge  modern  explorers  have  been  able  to  see  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Jordan  river  and  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  they  are  unanimous 
in  their  testimony  that  the  depression  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Sea  is  com- 
pletely cut  off  from  view  by  the  mountain  wall  in  the  vicinity  of  Engedi. 

2.  Abram's  outlook  near  Hebron  was  "  toward  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
and  toward  all  the  land  of  the  plain."     It  is  not  said  that  he  beheld  the 
cities  of  the  plain,  but  he  saw  the  "  smoke  of  the  country,  which  went  up 
as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace."     This  description  exactly  accords  with  the 
northward  view,  as  described  by  modern  travellers,  but  not  with  the  lim- 
ited outlook  southward. 

3.  The  word  translated  "plain"  in  the  passages  cited  is  Ciccar  (cir- 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  279 

cuit)  in  the  original.  Without  limitation  it  might  be  applied  to  the  de- 
pression at  the  lower  end  of  the  lake,  but  here  and  elsewhere  it  is  called 
the  plain  (Ciccar)  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  evident  that  this  expression 
would  be  inapplicable  to  a  valley  which  is  removed  more  than  forty 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan. 

4.  The  route  taken  by  Chedorlaomer  on  his  marauding  expedition 
furnishes  a  confirmatory  proof  in  support  of  the  northern  location  which 
can  hardly  be  questioned.     Coming  from  the  east  by  way  of  the  southern 
end  of  Mount  Seir  he  turned  northward  to  Kadesh  Barnea  and  thence 
to  the  Vale  of  Siddim  by  way  of  Engedi.     (Gen.  xiv.  1-16.)     On  the 
supposition  that  the  confederated  cities  were  at  the  south  end  of  the  Sea, 
the  four  kings  would  certainly  have  met  the  invader  long  before  he  reached 
Engedi,  or,  at  least  they  would  have  attacked  him  at  a  great  disadvantage 
on  his  return  journey  to  the  south.     Of  such   a  doubling  on  his  track, 
however,  there  is  no  hint  in  the  narrative.     The  direction  of  march  was 
evidently  continuous  from  Kadesh  Barnea  to  Dan  and,  hence  "  there  is  a 
topographical  sequence  in  the  whole  story." 

5.  The  fact  that  Zoar,  which  was  not  destroyed,  is  mentioned  by  some 
of  the  prophetic  writers  in  connection  with  contiguous  sites  on  the  plain 
of  Moab  (Abel  Shittim)  is  worthy  of  note,  as  indicative  of  the  general  lo- 
cation of  the  entire  group.     (Isa.  xv.  5,  6;  Jer.  xlviii.  34.)     This  harmon- 
izes also  with  the  statement   that  Moses,  from  the  top  of  Pisgah,  beheld 
the  south  (Negeb)  and  the  plain  of  the  valley  of  Jericho,  the  city  of  palm 
trees,  unto  Zoar.     (Deut.  xxxiv.  3.)     This  could  not  have  been  the  tradi- 
tional Zoar,  at  the  southeast  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  for  that  portion  of  the 
valley  is  completely  hidden  by  the  high  mountains  intervening  from  every 
outlook  on,  or  in  the  vicinity  of,  Nebo. 

The  exact  sites  of  the  cities  which  were  destroyed  will  prob- 
ably never  be  known.  They  were  overthrown  and  consumed 
by  fire ;  the  ground  on  which  they  stood  was  made  a  desola- 
tion "and  their  names  were  blotted  out  of  the  later  topography 
of  the  time  of  Joshua."  Concerning  these  sites  Major  Conder 
says: 

Although  no  ruins  were  found  by  the  Survey  party,  and  were  not  to  be 
expected,  yet  there  are  names  in  the  district,  applying  to  portions  of  the 
ground,  which  seem  to  me  to  have  a  possible  connection  with  those  of 
Gomorrah,  Admah  and  Zeboim. 

The  great  spring  of  Ain  Fe<=hkah  is  a  probable  site  for  one  of  the  Cities 


280  The  Land  of  Israel 

of  the  Plain  and  the  great  bluff  not  far  south  of  it  is  called  Tubk  Am- 
riyeh,  and  the  neighboring  valley  Wady  Amriyeh.  This  word  is  radic- 
ally identical  with  the  Hebrew  Gomorrah,  or  Ainorah  as  it  is  spelled  in 
one  passage.  (Gen.  x.  19.)  It  is  possible  then  that  the  name  of  Gomor- 
rah is  preserved  in  this  modern  district  title.1 

The  Plain  of  Abel  Shittim. — This  beautiful  expanse — the 
meadow  of  the  Acacias — or,  as  it  is  most  frequently  designated 
in  the  Pentateuch,  "the  Plains  of  Moab "  extends  from  the 
Nimrim  ford  or  ferry  of  the  Jordan — nearly  opposite  Jericho 
— to  the  limit  of  the  Jordan  plain  at  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Its  dimensions,  according  to  Dr.  Thomson's  estimate,  are  fifteen 
miles  in  length  by  eight  in  breadth,  including  the  mouths  of  the 
wadies,  and  adjacent  hillsides.  The  plain  is  broken  in  places 
by  torrent  beds,  little  knolls,  and  rocky  spurs  which  push  down 
from  the  main  range.  Near  the  river  it  is  exceedingly  fertile 
but  farther  back  it  is  an  undulating  pasture  land.  "  The  old 
and  gnarled  acacias,  scattered  here  and  there  upon  this  Shittim 
plain,  testify  in  the  strongest  degree  to  the  appropriateness  of 
its  Biblical  name,  and  they  are  no  doubt  the  descendants  of  the 
shittah-trees  which  covered  this  plain  in  the  time  of  Moses."  a 

This  was  the  last  camping-place  of  Israel  east  of  the  Jordan. 
(Num.  xxii.  i ;  Josh.  iii.  i.)  The  rows  of  tents  extended 
from  "Abel  Shittim" — the  town  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
plain — on  the  north,  to  "  Beth-Jeshimoth "  on  the  south. 
(Num.  xxxiii.  49.) 

"  Neither  pencil  nor  picture,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  can  adequately  de- 
scribe the  wonderful  scene,  nor  can  imagination  reproduce  it.  History 
records  nothing  with  which  to  compare  it  in  this  or  in  any  land,  and 
no  wonder  that  Balaam,  when  he  looked  upon  the  scene  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Nebo,  and  « saw  Israel  abiding  in  his  tents,  according  to  their 
tribes,'  exclaimed,  «  How  goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob,  and  thy  taber- 
nacles, O  Israel !  As  the  valleys  are  they  spread  forth,  as  gardens  by  the 
river's  side,  as  the  trees  of  lign-aloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted,  and  as 
cedar  trees  beside  the  waters,  and  blessed  is  he  that  blesseth  thee.'  "> 

» Tent  Work,  p.  207.  «  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  672. 

3  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  672. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  281 

There  are  a  number  of  tells  on  this  plain  whose  names  or 
locations  have  suggested  identifications  with  the  cities  of  Reu- 
ben and  Gad.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  :  Tell  Nim- 
rim,  opposite  Jericho  which,  with  name  scarcely  changed, 
marks  the  site  of  Beth-nimrah  ("  House  of  the  Leopard  ")  one 
of  the  fortified  cities  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  36) ;  Tell  Kef  rein 
identified  with  Abel  Shittim,  the  city  from  which  the  plain  de- 
rived its  name  (Num.  xxxiii.  49)  ;  Tell  er  Ramah,  near  Wady 
Heshbon,  with  Beth-harem,  a  fenced  city  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii. 
36) ;  Tell  Ektanu,  a  little  farther  east,  with  Zoar  the  city  of 
the  plain  to  which  Lot  fled  (Gen.  xix.  23);  and  Tell  es  Su- 
iveimeh  at  the  southern  limit  of  the  plain,  with  Beth-jeshimoth, 
a  city  of  Reuben.  (Josh.  xiii.  20.) 

"At  Tell  Kef  rein,  according  to  Josephus,  Moses  completed 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  amid  the  palm  trees  of  the  place 
delivered  his  last  address  to  the  children  of  Israel."  (Ant.  iv. 
8,  i,  2.)  In  the  Septuagint  the  name  Beth-nimrah  is  trans- 
lated Bethabara  and  hence  the  ford  of  the  Jordan  near  by  has 
been  regarded  by  many  as  the  place  of  John's  baptisms,  to 
which  reference  is  made  by  the  Evangelist.  (John  i.  28.) 

It  is  an  interesting  and  suggestive  fact  that  the  name, — 
"Plains  of  Moab," — which  is  used  nine  times  in  connection 
with  this  camping  ground  of  Israel,  is  not  found  outside  of  the 
Pentateuch,  "except  in  one  quotation  from  it  in  the  book  of 
Joshua."  "The  district  had  been  conquered  by  the  Amorites 
just  before  the  coming  of  Israel,  and  in  later  days  was  always 
known  as  Amorite  territory.  Accordingly  it  was  only  at  a  time 
when  the  memory  of  its  former  ownership  was  still  fresh  that  it 
could  thus  be  called  by  its  ancient  designation."  * 

The  Jordan  River  in  its  progress  through  the  Ghor  makes 
a  descent  of  about  600  feet.  It  is  a  swift,  turbid,  swirling 
stream,  with  numerous  rapids,  islands,  bends  and  loops,  and 
frequently  for  miles  its  course  is  completely  hidden  from  view 
by  dense  masses  of  trees  and  undergrowth.  The  width  of 
J  Pres.  and  Ref.  Review,  Vol.  II.,  p.  632. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  river,  except  in  its  flood-time,  is  seldom  more  than  100 
feet. 

It  has  two  channels  with  two  sets  of  banks.  The  lower 
channel  is  the  narrow  bed  in  which  the  river  ordinarily  flows. 
The  upper  is  a  mile  or  more  in  width,  in  some  places,  and  is 
covered  with  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle  of  tamarisks,  ole- 
anders, willows,  and  reedy  vegetation  of  mammoth  growth. 
This  high-level  channel  is  called  the  Zor. 

In  March  and  April — the  harvest  season  of  this  part  of  the 
valley — the  Jordan  overflows  its  banks  and  spreads  out  over  the 
surface  of  this  wider  basin,  driving  the  wild  beasts  from  their 
lairs  in  the  jungle  and  making  the  river  for  the  time  an  impass- 
able barrier.  During  this  season  the  Jordan  in  the  vicinity  of 
Jericho  is  nearly  a  mile  wide ;  at  its  close  it  sinks  down  within 
its  natural  borders. 

Fords  of  the  Jordan. — The  Survey  party  tabulated  a  list 
of  not  less  than  forty  crossing-places  in  the  Ghor,  most  of 
which  are  available  for  passage  only  in  summer. 

The  principal  fords  in  ancient  times  are  the  following  : 

(1)  The  crossing -place  of  the  great  highway  from  Galilee 
to  Bashan,  just  below  the  point  where  the  Jordan  leaves  the  lake 
of  Galilee.     This  is  marked  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  bridge 
of  ten  arches,  known  as  the  bridge  of  Um  el  Kanater. 

(2)  The  crossing  of  the  caravan  road  from  Galilee  to  Gadara 
and  the  East  by  way  of  the  gorge  of  the  Yarmuk  (Hieromax). 
This  ford  is  six  miles  below  the  lake  and  one  mile  below  the 
junction  of  the  Yarmuk  with  the  Jordan.     The  bridge  (Jisr  el 
Mejamia)  which  spans  the  river  at  this  point,  is  the  only  one 
now  available  for  travel  south  of  the  lake  of  Galilee.     Here  the 
proposed  railroad  to  Damascus  will  cross  the  Jordan. 

(3)  The  crossing  at  the  opening  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel  by 
the  road  leading  to  Pella,  Jabesh,  Gilead  and  eastward.    There 
are  three  fording  places  in  reality  at  this  point  very  near  each 
other.     One  of  them,  a  mile  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jalud, 
still  bears  the  name  Arabah,  meaning  " passage,"  or  "ferry," 


fti 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  283 

and  is  radically  the  same  word  found  in  the  name  "  Betha- 
bara."  1  Col.  Conder's  suggestion  that  this  place  may  be 
identical  with  the  Bethabara  where  John  was  baptizing 
when  he  received  the  deputation  from  the  priests  and 
Levites  of  Jerusalem  and  where  certain  events  following 
the  Baptist's  public  and  emphatic  testimony  to  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Jesus  was  given,  (John  i:  19—44)  has  been  favor- 
ably received  by  some  leading  authorities.  The  location, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  accord  with  other  contemporary 
events,  which  evidently  belong  to  John's  ministry  in 
Judea.  (Matt.  3:  13;  Luke  4:  14;  John  1-29.)  At  one  of 
these  fords  the  men  of  Jabesh  Gilead  crossed  over  by  night 
and  brought  away  from  the  wall  of  Bethshan  the  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  sons,  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  12.) 

(4)  The  Damieh  ford,  just  below  the  junction  of  the 
Jabbok,  was  the  well-known  crossing-place  of  the  road  from 
Mount  Gilead  to  Shechem.     This  was  evidently  the  place  of 
Jacob's  passage  over  the  Jordan  on  his  return  from  Padan 
Aram,  and  not  improbably  of  Abraham's,  also,  at  an  earlier 
day.     (Gen.  xii.  6,  xxxiii.  18.)     It  is  supposed  to  be  the  place 
where  the  Ephraimites  who  could  not  say  "Shibboleth"  were 
slain  by  the  men  of  Gilead.     (Judg.  xii.  5,6.) 

(5)  The  Nimrim  or  Nuwaimeh  ford,  near  Beth-nimrah, 
to  which  reference  has  been  already  made,  is  the  most  interesting 
of  all  the  passages  of  the  Jordan.     It  is  nearly  opposite  Jericho, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady  Shaib.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  up- 
per ford  ' '  to  distinguish  it  from  a  lower  crossing  a  short  distance 
below  the  Pilgrims'  bathing-place.    The  main  thoroughfare  from 
Jericho  to  Gilead  has  always  been  by  way  of  this  upper  ford. 
By  this  route  to  the  Jordan's  brink,  in  all  probability,  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  was  borne  by  the  priests  when  the  waters  stood 
on  heap  far  up  the  Ghor,  and  rolled  away  to  the  Sea  from  all 
the  valley  below.     (Josh.   iii.   15,   16.)     Hither  Elijah  came 
with  his  faithful  friend  and  associate,  Elisha,  from  Jericho,  and 
"the  river  that  had  drawn  back  at  a  nation's  feet,  parted  at 

» Thirty  Years'  Work.  p.  99. 


284: 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  stroke  of  one  man  and  they  two,  went  over  dry-shod." 
And  it  came  to  pass,  as  they  still  went  on  and  talked,  that, 
behold  there  appeared  a  chariot  of  fire,  and  parted  them  both 
asunder ;  and  Elijah  went  up  by  a  whirlwind  into  heaven.  It 
is  a  notable  fact  that  one  of  the  two  men  who  communed  with 
Jesus  on  the  transfiguration  mount  passed  from  earth  on  the 
top  of  Mount  Nebo,  and  the  other  from  the  plain  which  lies  at 
its  foot.  All  the  circumstances  of  the  gospel  narratives,  as 
well  as  the  name,  which  the  Septuagint  supplies,  point  to  this 
spot  beyond  Jordan  as  the  preaching  place  where  Jesus  was 
baptized.  (John  i.  28.)  "  There  is  surely  a  deep  significance 
in  the  fact,"  says  Dr.  Tristram,  "if  this  be  so,  of  him  who 
came  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Eli  as,  thus  exercising  his 
function  of  herald  of  the  kingdom,  and  completing  his  mission 
by  the  baptism  of  Christ,  at  the  very  spot  where  his  prototype 
had  ceased  from  his  mission  and  been  carried  unto  heaven. 
As  suddenly  as  the  first  Elijah  disappeared,  so  suddenly 
did  the  second  Elias  appear  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Re- 
deemer. Where  the  first  dropped  his  mantle,  in  that  very  spot 
did  the  second  take  it  up." l  By  this  ford  Christ  and  His  dis- 
ciples crossed  the  Jordan  when  coming  from  Perea  to  Jerusa- 
lem. Here,  also,  He  remained  two  days  when  He  heard  that 
Lazarus  was  sick.  (John  x.  40,  xi.  6.) 

(6)  The  lower  ford,  known  as  the  Pilgrims'  Bathing- 
place,  is  five  or  six  miles  south  of  the  Nimrim  ford.  It  was 
used  almost  exclusively  for  the  passage  to  Moab.  This  was 
one  of  the  "fords  toward  Moab"  which  Ehud  took  when  he 
delivered  Israel  from  the  oppression  of  the  Moabites.  (Judg. 
iii.  28.)  This  ford  was  the  probable  crossing-place  of  Naomi 
and  Ruth  on  their  journey  to  Bethlehem.  (Ruth,  chap,  i.) 

It  is  evident  from  this  brief  study  that  the  Jordan  as  a  whole 
has  several  remarkable  features,  some  of  which  are  absolutely 
unique. 

Its  time-honored  name — "  the  Descender  " — is  indicative  of 
i  Sunday  Mag.,  1868,  p.  256. 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  285 

one  of  these  features,  viz  : — its  unparalleled  descent — not  only 
a  down-going  of  3,000  feet  in  its  course  of  115  miles,  but  its 
descent  to  a  lower  point  than  is  reached  by  any  other  water 
basin  of  its  class  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Other  features 
hardly  less  noteworthy  than  this  are  :  the  rapidity  of  its  flow  ; 
the  almost  countless  windings  of  its  channel,  especially  in  the 
lower  valley  where  there  is  "no  reach  of  half  a  mile  in  a 
straight  line";  its  three  picturesque  sources,  which  are  but 
reservoirs  for  the  down-rushing  floods  of  Mount  Hermon's  melt- 
ing snows ;  its  three  lake-basins,  unlike  each  other  in  almost 
every  physical  feature ;  its  double  channel ;  its  dense  border- 
ings  of  undergrowth  hiding  the  flow  of  its  waters  ;  the  periodic 
overflow  of  its  banks  in  the  harvest  season ;  and  the  wonder- 
ful variety  of  soil  and  scenery,  climate  and  vegetation  through 
which  it  passes  on  its  way  to  the  deep,  lifeless  basin,  which 
swallows  up  its  continuous  flood  and  yet  is  never  full. 

The  history  of  the  Jordan  has  been  inwoven  with  the  story 
of  Redemption  from  the  memorable  day  that  Abram  passed  over 
it  into  the  Land  of  Promise.  It  is  more  frequently  named  in 
poetry  and  song,  more  attractive  to  pilgrim  bands  from  every 
land,  "more  spoken  about  by  mankind,"  than  the  Nile,  the 
Euphrates,  the  Abana  or  any  other  stream,  because  of  the  Di- 
vine manifestations  of  power,  healing,  and  grace  displayed  from 
age  to  age  all  along  its  course  from  the  fountain  of  Banias  to 
the  fords  of  Jericho. 

"The  Jordan  marks  the  termination  of  the  wanderings  of 
the  children  of  Israel  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  their  history  as  an  independent  nation  in  their  own 
home.  It  blends  the  memories  of  the  Old  and  New  Cove- 
nants, as  the  culmination  of  John's  testimony  and  the  inaugu- 
ration of  Christ's  kingdom."  l  "  Surely,"  says  Magregor,  "  the 
Jordan  is  by  far  the  most  wonderful  stream  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  and  the  memories  of  its  history  will  not  be  forgotten  in 
heaven." 2 

1  Schaff  's  Bible  Lands,  p.  299.  *  Rob  Roy  on  Jordan,  p.  406. 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  Dead  Sea  Basin. — The  Dead  Sea — or  Salt  Sea  as  it 
is  usually  termed  in  the  Scriptures — occupies  the  upper  portion 
of  this  basin  almost  exclusively.  On  the  northern  half  of  its 
west  side  there  is  a  narrow  strip  of  coast-land,  interrupted  at 
two  places  by  towering  cliffs  which  push  down  to  the  water's 
edge.  South  of  Engedi  the  beach  is  wider,  admitting  a  broad 
uninterrupted  passage-way  to  the  lower  end  of  the  lake.  An 
ancient  roadway  from  the  south  followed  the  coast  to  Engedi 
where  it  diverged  westward,  passing  up  by  way  of  the  cliff  of 
Ziz  to  the  summit  of  the  plateau.  This  was  the  route  taken 
by  the  army  of  Chadorlaomer  from  Kadesh  Barnea  to  the 
cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  xiv.),  and  it  is  still  used  by  the  camel 
trains,  which  carry  salt  from  Jebel  Usdum  to  Jerusalem. 

Jebel  Usdum  is  a  narrow,  isolated  ridge  of  crystallized 
rock-salt,  six  or  seven  miles  in  length,  near  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  western  coast.  This  salt  mountain  has  a  slight 
covering  of  chalky  limestone  and  gypsum  which  protects  it 
from  rapid  disintegration.  Beneath  this,  however,  portions  of 
the  ridge  frequently  split  off  in  great  masses  and  lie  in  heaps 
at  its  base.  In  some  places  it  is  pierced  with  long,  narrow 
caverns.  Its  height  varies  fron  200  to  300  feet. 

The  portion  of  the  basin  south  of  the  water-line  of  the  Dead 
Sea  is  a  marshy,  salt-covered  region  given  over  to  barrenness 
and  desolation — except  on  its  eastern  side  near  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  lake.  This  favored  district  is  called  the  Ghor- 
es-Safieh.  Here  there  is  an  abundance  of  fresh  water  and  the 
soil  is  wonderfully  fertile.  In  no  other  spot  perhaps  in  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Jordan  can  such  a  collection  of  plants  and 
trees  peculiar  to  tropical  climes,  be  found. 

The  width  of  the  whole  valley  south  of  the  lake  varies  from 
five  to  six  miles.  Its  length  is  a  little  over  eight  miles.  The 
basin  ends  at  the  line  of  high  cliffs  which  cross  the  valley  at 
this  distance  from  the  Sea.  Here  begins  the  Arabah  which  ex- 
tends due  south  1 1 2  miles  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  This  long 
valley  for  more  than  one-half  its  distance  drains  toward  the 


The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  287 

Dead  Sea.  "  There  are  also  many  springs  on  the  shores  of  the 
lake,  and  within  its  shallower  waters,  some  hot,  some  salt, 
some  sulphurous,  and  others  fresh,  which  contribute  to  its 
bulk."1  The  most  prominent  feature  on  the  eastern  shore  is 
the  peninsula  near  the  lower  end  called  El  Lisan — the  tongue — 
which  pushes  its  huge  bulk  more  than  half-way  across  the  lake. 
It  is  about  twelve  miles  in  length  by  six  in  breadth.  Lieutenant 
Lynch  describes  it  as  "A  bold,  broad  promontory,  from  forty 
to  sixty  feet  high,  incrusted  with  salt  and  bitumen,  the  perpen- 
dicular face  extending  all  round,  and  presenting  the  coarse  and 
chalky  appearance  of  recent  carbonate  of  lime."  2 

Above  the  Lisan,  excepting  a  slight  recession  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Arnon  river,  there  is  a  narrow  continuous  beach  overshad- 
owed by  the  towering  mountains  of  Moab. 

Driftwood  stripped  of  its  bark,  bleached,  and  salt  covered, 
marks  the  high- water  line  of  the  coast  on  either  side.  Lumps 
of  bitumen  or  asphalt  so  pure  that  they  will  ignite  when  held 
in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  may  be  picked  up  at  almost  any  point 
on  the  shore. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  forty-six  miles  long  and  nearly  ten  wide,  at 
its  widest  part.  Its  maximum  depth  is  1,308  feet.  The  point 
where  this  depth  was  found  is  about  one-third  of  the  length  of 
the  lake  from  its  north  end,  on  the  eastward  side  of  the  chan- 
nel. This  portion  of  the  valley  or  cleft  is  4,300  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Hashbany  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  about  the 
same  distance  below  the  summit  of  the  mountains  of  Moab, 
which  rise  directly  above  it.  If  a  plummet  were  dropped  from 
a  level  corresponding  with  the  summit  of  the  Mount  of  Olives 
to  this  depth,  it  would  require  the  paying  out  of  a  line  5,260 
feet  long  :  and  yet  the  distance  between  thei-e  points  in  a  direct 
line  is  less  than  twenty  miles.  The  water  of  the  lake  is  famous 
for  its  density,  its  bitterness  and  its  buoyancy.  It  holds  in  so- 
lution more  than  five  times  as  much  salt  as  the  water  of  the 
ocean,  mingled  with  chlorides  of  magnesium,  calcium,  potas- 

1  The  Holy  Land,  p.  76.       2  Narrative  of  Lieutenant  Lynch,  p.  297. 


288 


The  Land  of  Israel 


sium  and  other  mineral  salts,  which  impart  to  it  an  extremely 
bitter  and  nauseous  taste.  To  float  on  this  briny  deep  requires 
no  effort ;  to  make  progress  in  swimming  is  not  so  easy,  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  experienced  in  keeping  the  feet  and  lower 
limbs  beneath  the  surface.  Contrary  to  the  impression  which 
generally  prevails,  the  water  is  clear,  delicately  tinted  and  so 
transparent  that  pebbles  may  be  seen  at  a  depth  of  twenty  and 
thirty  feet.  The  reflections  of  the  mountains  on  the  surface 
of  this  deeply-set,  heavily-framed  mirror  are  surpassingly  beau- 
tiful, and  the  mists  which  rise  from  it  as  from  a  steaming  chal- 
dron, impart  to  every  object  lying  beyond  it,  that  rare  purplish 
tint  which  Holman  Hunt  has  sought  to  reproduce  in  his  famous 
picture  of  the  Scape-goat.  In  all  Judea,  says  Doctor  Smith, 
there  is  no  view  like  that  one  bounded  by  the  range  of  Moab, 
as  you  see  it  across  the  wilderness  from  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

While  there  is  nothing  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  lake  or  its 
shores,  or  in  the  appearance  of  its  waters,  to  suggest  the  omi- 
nous name  which  it  now  bears,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  it  is  a 
sea  of  death.  "No  fish  can  live  in  it;  no  tree  grows  on  its 
banks,  and  its  air  is  like  the  blast  of  a  furnace. ' '  Few  of  those 
who  have  tarried  by  its  shores  to  sound  its  depths  or  explore  its 
coasts,  have  escaped  the  effects  of  its  blighting  malaria  or 
deadly  fevers. 

The  narrative  of  the  carefully  conducted  explorations  of  the  Jordan 
valley  under  the  direction  of  Lieutenant  Lynch  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  gives  the  fullest  and  most  accurate  information  concerning  the  char- 
acteristic features  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  its  surroundings.  See  also  Bible 
Researches  of  Doctor  Robinson,  The  Land  and  the  Book — Doctor  Thom- 
son, Tristram's  Topography  of  Holy  Land,  Conder's  Tent  Work,  etc. 


The  Fourth  Longitudinal  Section 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  ANTI-LEBANON  MOUNTAINS 
(Consult  Sketch  Map  No.  i.) 

THE  Eastern  or  Anti-Lebanon  range  is  lower  in  elevation  and 
more  irregular  in  outline  than  Lebanon.  While  pursuing  the 
same  general  direction  southward,  Anti-Lebanon  is,  for  the 
most  part,  a  series  of  broken,  parallel  ridges.  In  the  Scripture 
it  is  designated  as  "Lebanon  toward  the  sun  rising."  (Josh, 
xiii.  5.) 

There  is  a  marked  depression  or  break  in  the  range,  a  little 
north  of  the  latitude  of  Damascus,  which  has  been  utilized  in 
the  construction  of  the  carriage  and  railroad  routes  from  Beirut 
to  Damascus.  This  break  separates  Anti-Lebanon  Proper, 
known  as  the  East  Mountain  (Jebel  esh  Shurky),  from  Mount 
Hermon  (Jebel  esh  Sheikh).  ^ 

Mount  Hermon  trends  farther  to  the  west  than  the  main 
ridge  and  is  properly  an  outlier  of  Anti-Lebanon. 

The  East  Mountain  for  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  length 
northward  is  a  treeless,  verdureless  waste.  Here  there  are  no 
perennial  streams  and  but  few  valleys  or  patches  of  level  ground 
amid  the  chalky  ridges,  that  are  capable  of  cultivation.  The 
southern  end  of  the  range  is  broken  up  by  the  deep  valley  of 
the  Barada,  the  Abana  of  ancient  times  (2  Kings  v.  12)  which 
brings  life  and  fertility  all  along  its  zigzag  course  from  the  plain 
of  Zebedany,  near  the  summit  of  Anti-Lebanon,  to  the  plain 
of  Damascus,  at  its  foot.  "Along  the  river  on  both  sides,  in 

289 


290 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  deep  narrow  valley,  every  inch  of  land  that  can  be  reached 
by  irrigation  is  cultivated,  and  the  rows  of  tall  poplars  extend 
for  miles,  marking  the  course  of  the  river  as  with  a  fringe  of 
green,  running  back  and  forth  among  the  chalky  hills."  1 

The  chief  tributary  of  the  Abana  is  the  celebrated  fountain 
called  Ain  el  Fijeh.  The  crystal  waters  of  this  fountain  burst 
forth  from  a  double  cavern  in  front  of  which  are  the  ruins  of 
an  ancient  temple.  This  spot  is  an  ideal  resting-place  which 
the  wayfarer  over  the  Lebanons  is  not  likely  to  forget  while  life 
and  memory  last.  Here  at  Ain  el  Fijeh,  says  Doctor  Thomson, 
one  is  at  a  loss  which  most  to  admire — the  great  quantity  of 
water  that  bursts  from  beneath  this  ruined  platform,  cold  and 
beautifully  clear,  or  the  rushing,  roaring  cataract,  foaming  and 
tumbling  over  the  rocks  as  it  plunges  down  its  narrow  channel ; 
or  the  thick  forests  of  tall  trees,  willows  and  walnuts,  syca- 
mores, planes  and  poplars,  that  overshadow  the  banks,  or  the 
magnificent  cliffs  that  rise  a  thousand  feet  or  more  and  shut  in 
this  happy  vale  on  every  side. 

A  modern  village  (Suk  Wady  Barada)  in  a  bend  of  the 
river,  three  miles  above  the  Fijeh  fountain,  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Abila,  the  capital  of  Abilene.  This  district 
is  mentioned  by  Luke  in  connection  with  the  tetrarchy  of  Ly- 
sanias  (iii.  i).  The  place  has  been  identified  by  Latin  inscrip- 
tions on  the  face  of  a  cliff  above  the  road  dating  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century. 

The  Zebedany  plain,  seven  miles  long  by  one  to  three 
wide,  is  noted  for  its  rich  verdure  and  luscious  fruits.  Its  ap- 
ples, pears,  quinces,  apricots,  plums,  and  grapes  are  in  great 
demand  in  Beirut  and  the  towns  of  northern  Syria.  The  ele- 
vation of  the  plain  is  over  3,500  feet. 

The  Jebel  esh  Shurky  has  no  Scriptural  associations  ex- 
cept the  casual  references  to  sites  already  named. 

The  ancient  city  of  Zedad,  a  landmark  on  the  northern  bor- 
der line  of  Israel,  lies  out  on  the  open  plain  along  the  road 
I  Doctor  Merrill— Pict.  Pal.,  p.  444. 


The  Anti-Lebanon  Mountains  291 

leading  from  Ribleh  to  Palmyra.  It  is  about  twenty  miles  east 
of  the  northern  end  of  the  main  ridge  of  Anti-Lebanon,  and 
seventy  miles  northeast  of  Damascus.  The  site  of  Zedad  has 
been  recovered  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  thirty  centuries 
mainly  by  the  identification  of  its  name  with  the  name  of  the 
modern  village  of  Sudad.  The  outgoings  of  the  border  line 
from  this  point  were  at  Hazar-enan,  and  thence  the  line  passed 
westward  to  Riblah,  and  southward  to  Baal-Gad  and  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  (Num.  xxxiv.  9-11.  See  also 
Ezek.  xlvii.  16-18.)  The  site  of  Hazar-enan  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  if  Ziphron  is  identical  with  the  modern  village  of 
Zifrun,  three  miles  east  of  Arethusa,  the  border  line  must  have 
been  drawn  northeast  from  the  "entrance  of  Hamath  "  toward 
the  city  of  Hamath ;  then  southeast  by  Ziphron,  Zedad  and 
Hazar-enan;  and  thence  westward  to  Riblah.1  (See  Sketch 
Map  No.  i.) 

Damascus. — The  city  of  Damascus  lies  on  the  edge  of  a 
sandy  desert  which  stretches  eastward  from  Anti-Lebanon  to  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates.  It  is  two  miles  from  the  base  of  the 
mountain ;  seventy  miles  from  Beirut  by  way  of  the  carriage 
road;  fifty-five  miles  east  of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  133 
miles  in  a  direct  line  from  Jerusalem. 

The  plain  of  Damascus  known  as  the  Ghutah  is  a 
dark  island-like  mass  of  green  covering  an  area  of  more  than 
thirty  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  an  oasis  of  marvellous 
beauty  and  fertility  shaped  and  nourished  by  the  life-giving 
waters  of  the  Barada,  the  Abana  of  Scripture.  Close  to  the 
place  of  its  outgo  from  the  mountains  this  swiftly  descending 
stream  is  parted  into  several  branches  and  these  into  smaller 
streams  with  lateral  water  courses  which  irrigate  every  foot  of 
ground  within  their  reach.  According  to  the  estimate  of  the 
natives  there  are  365  canals  in  the  Ghutah  which  distribute 
water  to  more  than  30,000  gardens.  The  main  branches  of 
the  river  flow  over  the  plain  in  a  southeasterly  direction  for 
1  Porter's  Holy  Places  of  Syria,  p.  316. 


292 


The  Land  of  Israel 


sixteen  or  eighteen  miles,  where  they  unite  in  a  lower  basin  to 
form  two  marshy  lakes. 

To  this  river  the  city  of  Damascus  owes  its  origin,  its  long 
existence  and  its  distinctive  charms.  Everywhere  amid  groves 
and  gardens,  in  public  resorts  and  in  quiet,  retired  nooks,  the 
flash  of  its  swiftly  moving  currents  or  the  murmur  of  its  unseen 
rivulets  may  be  seen  or  heard.  Every  mosque  and  khan,  every 
house  and  court  has  its  fountain  or  fountains,  and  there  are  no 
restrictions  on  their  constant  flow.  This  paradise  of  the  Arab 
world  has  been  briefly  described  as  "a  150  square  miles  of 
green,  thronging  and  billowy  as  the  sea,  with  the  white  compact 
city  rising  from  it  like  an  island.  There  is  apparently  all  the 
lavishness  of  a  virgin  forest,  but  when  you  get  down  among  it 
you  find  neither  rankness  nor  jungle."  l  Here  every  shade  of 
green  is  visible,  from  the  dark  of  the  orange  to  the  silver-grey 
of  the  olive ;  every  tinge  of  color  from  the  rich  bloom  of  the 
oleander  and  the  damask  rose  to  the  snowy  white  of  the  almond 
and  the  apricot.  On  every  side  of  Damascus,  except  the 
west  there  are  numerous  villages  surrounded  by  gardens  and 
orchards.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  beyond  the  Ghutah 
proper,  there  is  a  notable  expanse  of  greensward  called  the  Merj. 
This  is  the  favorite  outdoor  resort  of  the  citizens  of  Damascus 
and  the  usual  starting  point  for  the  caravans  and  pilgrim  bands. 
There  is  not  another  city  in  Syria,  says  Dr.  Thomson,  which 
can  boast  of  such  a  verdant  meadow. 

The  Awaj  river,  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Pharpar, 
rises  among  the  rugged  clefts  of  Mount  Hermon  and  flows 
eastward  across  the  plain  to  a  lake  a  few  miles  south  of  the  twin 
lakes  of  the  Barada.  This  stream  borders  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Ghutah,  and  contributes  its  share  to  the  irrigation  of  the 
greater  plain  which  lies  beyond  it.  "  Next  to  the  Barada,  this 
is  the  most  important  stream  in  all  the  region  around  Damas- 
cus; and  is  therefore  most  probably  to  be  regarded  as  the 
Pharpar  of  Scripture."2  These  rivers  of  Damascus— the 

» Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  644.  3  Rob.  Phys.  Geog.,  p.  365. 


The  Anti-Lebanon  Mountains  293 

Abana  and  Pharpar — fresh  from  the  mountains  and  capable  of 
such  wonderful  transforming  power,  were  regarded  by  Naaman 
the  Syrian  as  "  better  than  all  the  waters  of  Israel  "  (2  Kings 
v.  12),  until  he  found  in  the  Jordan  the  evidence  of  a 
Divinely-imparted  efficacy  far  transcending  the  natural  agen* 
cies  of  his  own  highly -favored  land. 

Damascus  has  more  of  the  characteristic  features  of  a  city  of 
the  Caliphs  than  any  other  city  of  the  East.  The  spirit  of  the 
Arabian  Nights  yet  lingers  in  its  streets  and  courts  imparting 
to  it  a  charm  peculiarly  its  own.  It  is  also  true  that  "  Damas- 
cus furnishes,  in  many  respects,  the  best  living  illustrations  of 
the  Holy  Book  that  are  now  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the 
Promised  Land."1  Its  crowning  glory  is  its  undisputed  an- 
tiquity. It  holds  the  first  place  among  all  the  great  cities  of 
the  past  ages  because  it  is  the  only  one  which  has  retained  its 
name  and  individuality  unchanged.  It  has  suffered  from  re- 
verses, from  sieges  and  frequent  invasions ;  its  streets  have  oft- 
times  been  stained  with  the  blood  of  its  defenders  and  its  de- 
fences have  been  reduced  at  times  to  a  ruinous  heap,  but  it  has 
never  become  an  utter  desolation.  It  has  never  wholly  lost  its 
place  of  power  and  influence.  With  a  present  population  of 
250,000,  it  still  holds  its  ancient  place  as  the  "  head  of  Syria." 
In  this  sense  it  may  be  appropriately  styled  the  "  mother-city 
of  the  world." 

Damascus  was  included  in  the  dominion  over  which  David 
and  Solomon  had  rule,  but  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  lists  of 
the  cities  belonging  to  the  inheritance  of  Israel. 

In  the  second  book  of  Kings  we  are  told  that  "  Jeroboam 
(II.)  recovered  Damascus  and  Hamath  which  belonged  to 
Judah,  for  Israel "  (xiv.  28),  but  this  evidently  means  that  he 
regained  a  portion  of  the  empire  over  which  Solomon  had 
ruled.  It  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  Damascus  was  a  re- 
covered part  of  Israel's  possession.  In  this  sense  there  could 
be  no  propriety  in  saying  that  it  formerly  belonged  to  Judah. 
1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  371. 


294 


The  Land  of  Israel 


In  the  book  of  Joshua  we  find  that  the  inheritance  of  the  two 
and  one  half  tribes  beyond  Jordan  included  "all  Mount  Her- 
mon,  and  all  Bashan  unto  Salcah,  and  all  the  kingdom  of  Og 
in  Bashan"  (xiii.  n).  Elsewhere  it  is  recorded  that  "the 
children  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  increased  from  Bashan 
unto  Baal-Hermon  and  Senir,  and  unto  Mount  Hermon."  (i 
Chron.  v.  23.)  This  extension  was  close  to  the  border  of  the 
plain  of  Damascus  if  it  did  not  include  it,  but  at  most  it  was 
only  a  temporary  possession. 

The  situation  of  Damascus  accounts  for  its  close  relationship 
to  the  people  of  Israel.  Its  unbroken  history  of  more  than  four 
thousand  years  is  interwoven  with  many  of  the  prominent 
events  in  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  dispensations. 

Josephus  asserts  that  Damascus  was  founded  by  Uz,  the 
great-grandson  of  Noah.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was 
on  the  line  of  Abram's  journey  to  Canaan,  and  the  tradition 
that  he  tarried  for  a  time  in  or  about  this  city  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  the  chief  steward  of  the  household,  in  his  old 
days,  was  Eliezer  of  Damascus.  This  faithful  servant  was 
born  in  his  house.  (Gen.  xv.  2,  3.)  The  city  is  mentioned 
for  the  first  time  in  Scripture  in  connection  with  the  story  of 
Abram's  pursuit  of  the  army  of  Chedorlaomer.  (Gen.  xiv. 
15.)  When  David  extended  his  conquests  northward  to  the 
Euphrates  all  of  the  country  covered  by  the  name  "Aram  of 
Damascus  "  fell  into  his  hands.  "  Then  David  put  garrisons  in 
Syria  of  Damascus  ;  and  the  Syrians  became  servants  to  David 
and  brought  gifts."  (2  Sam.  viii.  6.)  This  captured  territory 
belonged  to  the  empire  of  Solomon  also,  but  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign  was  held  as  a  nominal  rather  than  a  real  posses- 
sion, (i  Chron.  xviii.  6.)  After  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  the  several  tribes  of  Syria  united  their  strength  under 
one  government  the  head  of  which  was  at  Damascus.  Between 
this  aggressive  power  and  the  northern  kingdom  there  was 
almost  constant  strife,  until  both  came  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Assyrians.  At  this  time  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus  were 


The  Anti-Lebanon  Mountains  295 

carried  away  into  captivity  unto  Kir,  as  the  prophet  Amos  had 
foretold  (i.  5). 

The  home  of  Naaman,  the  famous  captain  of  the  hosts  of  the 
king  of  Syria,  who  was  healed  of  his  leprosy  by  the  prophet 
Elisha,  was  in  Damascus,  and  here  dwelt  the  "little  captive 
maid,  brought  away  from  the  land  of  Israel,"  at  whose  earnest 
solicitation  he  undertook  the  journey  to  Samaria.  From  this 
city,  Naaman  went  forth  with  horses  and  chariot  and  a  retinue 
of  servants,  expecting  to  be  healed  in  a  manner  comporting 
with  his  great  rank  and  dignity,  but  ere  he  returned  that  way 
he  had  learned  that  there  was  "  no  God  in  all  the  earth,  but  in 
Israel."  (2  Kings,  chap,  v.)  During  one  of  the  brief  intervals 
of  peace  between  Israel  and  Syria,  Elisha  came  to  Damas- 
cus with  a  message  from  God  to  Hazael.  Well  knowing  that 
his  advancement  to  the  throne  of  Syria  was  with  a  view  to  the 
execution  of  long-threatened  judgments  upon  his  own  people, 
the  prophet  wept  as  he  delivered  his  message.  When  Hazael 
knew  the  meaning  of  this  uncontrollable  emotion,  he  indignantly 
exclaimed,  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  great 
thing."  Notwithstanding  this  disclaimer  Hazael,  during  his 
long  and  infamous  reign,  was  guilty  of  all  the  atrocities  that  the 
prophet  had  foreseen  and  foretold.  (2  Kings  viii.  7-15.) 

The  most  important  and  far-reaching  event  in  the  long  his- 
tory of  Damascus  was  the  conversion  of  Saul  of  Tarsus. 
Hither  he  came  from  Jerusalem,  "breathing  out  threatenings 
and  slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord,"  but,  ere  he 
reached  the  confines  of  the  city,  a  light  above  the  brightness  of 
the  sun  shone  round  about,  and  as  he  fell  prostrate  to  the  earth, 
he  heard  a  voice  saying  unto  him,  Saul,  Saul  why  persecutest  thou 
me  ?  In  that  supreme  moment  of  his  life  the  bigoted  persecutor 
saw  the  glorified  Saviour  and  recognized  in  Him  the  long-prom- 
ised Messiah.  From  that  moment  he  yielded  himself  without 
reserve  to  Him  and  to  His  service.  Within  the  city,  where  his 
sight  was  restored  after  three  days,  Saul  was  baptized  by  An- 
anias. "  And  straightway  he  preached  Jesus  in  the  synagogues, 


296 


The  Land  of  Israel 


that  He  is  the  Son  of  God."  (Acts  ix.  1-26.)  Here  as  one 
has  well  said,  in  view  of  his  baptism,  "  the  rivers  of  Damascus," 
became  more  to  him  than  "  all  the  waters  of  Judah  "  had  been. 
Driven  from  the  city  by  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  Paul  went  into 
Arabia.  Some  time  afterward  he  returned  again  unto  Damascus 
(Gal.  i.  1 7)  where  he  preached  boldly  and  with  great  success 
in  the  name  of  Jesus.  When  at  length  it  was  known  that  the 
Jews  were  lying  in  wait  to  kill  him  "  the  disciples  took  him  by 
night,  and  let  him  down  by  the  wall  in  a  basket."  (Acts  ix.  24, 
25.)  Over  one  of  the  portals  of  "the  Great  Mosque,"  which 
was  once  a  Christian  Cathedral,  may  still  be  seen  the  signifi- 
cant, prophetic  words:  "Thy  kingdom,  O  Christ,  is  an  ever- 
lasting kingdom,  and  Thy  dominion  endureth  for  all  genera- 
tions." 

Helbon,  a  city  noted  for  its  wine  and  wool  in  the  olden  time 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18)  has  been  identified  with  a  village  still  bearing 
the  same  name,  about  nineteen  miles  north  of  Damascus.  "  It 
lies  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon  in  a  deep  and  wild 
glen,  the  sides  of  which  are  covered  with  vineyards ;  and  the 
vintners  of  Damascus  regard  the  grapes  of  Helbon  as  the  best 
in  this  part  of  Syria."  l 

Mount  Hermon. — This  majestic  mountain  stands  out  dis- 
tinctly from  the  main  range  of  Anti-Lebanon,  and  towers  high 
above  it.  Its  elevation  above  the  sea  is  9,383  feet.  It  is  but- 
tressed by  ridges  of  lesser  elevation,  so  compactly  grouped 
around  it  that  it  seems  to  rise  as  one  gigantic  mass,  almost  di- 
rectly from  the  plains  that  skirt  it  on  the  south  and  east.  The 
noble  contour  of  its  glittering  dome  may  be  seen  from  the 
lowest  reaches  of  the  Jordan  valley  ;  from  the  shores  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee ;  from  the  Huleh  basin ;  and  from  almost  every 
elevated  plain,  and  mountain  in  Eastern  and  Western  Palestine. 
As  seen  from  the  south  it  stands,  with  snowy  summit  reaching 
to  the  clouds,  apparently  at  the  very  head  of  the  great  cleft  be- 
tween the  mountain  ranges.  From  the  east  no  better  con- 
>  Barrow's  Sacred  Gcog.,  p.  290. 


The  Anti-Lebanon  Mountains  297 

ception  of  its  appearance  can  be  given  than  the  poetic  desrrip- 
tion  of  it  in  the  book  of  Canticles, — "  the  tower  which  looketh 
toward  Damascus"  (vii.  4). 

The  crest  of  Hermon  terminates  in  three  peaks  about  one 
fourth  of  a  mile  apart.  The  lowest  lies  to  the  west ;  me  two 
which  lie  to  the  north  and  south  respectively,  are  about  equal 
in  height.  The  plural  of  the  Hebrew  name,  "  the  Hermons  M — 
incorrectly  translated  "the  Hermonites" — is  used  in  Psalm 
xlii.  6  with  evident  reference  to  the  triple  peaks  of  the 
mountain.  Baal-Hermon  seems  to  have  been  the  designation 
of  one  of  these  peaks,  or  possibly,  as  Dr.  Robinson  suggests,  of 
that  part  which  was  adjacent  to  the  city  Baal-Hermon.  (Judg. 
iii.  3 ;  i  Chron.  v.  23.)  By  the  Phoenicians  Hermon  was 
called  Sirion;  by  the  Amorites,  Shenir.  (Deut.  iii.  9.)  It  was 
also  called  Sion,  "  the  lofty  or  elevated."  Its  modern  name  is 
Jebel  esh  Sheikh,  the  Chief  Mountain  or  Mountain  of  the  Chief. 
Hermon  was  the  sacred  mountain  of  the  ancient  worshippers  of 
Baal.  The  remains  of  a  temple  have  been  excavated  on  its 
summit  near  the  southern  peak,  and  the  whole  of  the  moun- 
tain, as  Dr.  Robinson  puts  it,  "  was  girdled  with  temples. 
They  are  found  in  all  situations  crowning  hills  and  mountain- 
tops,  or  secluded  in  deep  valleys  and  gorges."  l 

The  view  from  the  summit  of  this  mountain,  when  it  is  free 
from  clouds,  is  said  to  be  unequalled  in  its  sweep,  especially  to- 
ward the  east,  where  the  dim  outlines  of  Jebel  Hauran,  seventy 
miles  away,  may  be  seen;  and  toward  the  south,  where  the 
whole  of  the  depressed  line  of  the  Jordan  can  be  traced.  In 
midsummer  the  snow  melts  away  from  the  smooth  faces  of  the 
upper  slopes  of  Hermon,  but  it  remains  in  the  deep  furrows  and 
clefts  throughout  the  entire  year.  As  ordinarily  seen  by  trav- 
ellers to  the  East  its  lofty  heights  are  covered  with  a  glittering 
mantle  of  ice  and  snow.  On  the  twentieth  of  March  we  found 
snowdrifts  so  deep  as  to  be  almost  impassable,  on  the  road  to 
Damascus  over  the  shoulder  of  Hermon,  at  an  elevation  of  less 
1  Bib.  Res.,  p.  409. 


298 


The  Land  of  Israel 


than  5,000  feet.  The  crystal  streams  which  issue  from  this 
mass  of  slowly-melting  snow  pour  out  from  the  base  of  the 
mountain  to  the  south  and  west,  going  down  by  the  valleys,  and 
through  each  successive  level  of  the  descending  course  of  the 
Jordan  to  the  deep  basin  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Here  the  impris- 
oned waters,  obeying  the  impulse  of  another  great  law  of  na- 
ture, begin  to  ascend  in  the  form  of  vapor,  steaming  up  as 
from  a  heated  chaldron,  to  the  summit  of  the  hills.  Thence, 
by  the  subtile  movements  of  other  forces  and  currents,  it  hastens 
by  an  irresistible  attraction  to  the  "  place  of  the  gathering  of  the 
clouds"  directly  over  the  lofty  summit  of  Hermon.  The  de- 
scent of  the  rain,  the  copious  dews  or  the  feathery  flakes  of 
snow — from  the  clouds,  which  thus  collect  over  the  mountain, 
complete  this  circuit  of  never-ending  movements  and  transfor- 
mations. Here  where  cloud  and  snow  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished the  phenomenon  which  the  wise  man  of  Israel  noted 
many  centuries  ago  is  evermore  repeated ;  and  in  a  circuit  so 
contracted  that  its  farthest  limit  comes  within  the  range  of  or- 
dinary vision.  "  Unto  the  place  from  whence  the  rivers  come, 
thither  they  return  to  go  again."  (Eccl.  i.  7.) 

The  Place  of  the  Transfiguration  was  probably  on  one  of 
the  elevated  platforms  on  the  southern  slope  of  Hermon,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Caesarea  Philippi.  There  is  no  intimation  that  our 
Lord  returned  to  Galilee  in  the  six  days  that  intervened  be- 
tween the  first  announcement  of  His  approaching  death,  and 
the  scene  of  the  Transfiguration. 

Evidently  this  was  a  period  of  retirement  from  the  world  for 
a  definite  purpose  and  this  wonderful  manifestation  of  the  glory 
of  the  incarnate  Saviour  was  the  closing  event  in  this  sacred  prep- 
aration period.  On  that  memorable  evening  Jesus  took  three 
of  the  inner  circle  of  His  disciples  to  some  point  on  this  "  high 
mountain  apart  by  themselves  "  for  a  season  of  uninterrupted 
communion  and  prayer.  "It  is  natural  to  suppose,"  says 
Dean  Farrar,  "that  our  Lord,  anxious  to  traverse  the  Holy 
Land  of  His  birth  to  its  northern  limit,  journeyed  slowly  for- 


The  Anti-Lebanon  Mountains  209 

waid  till  he  reached  the  lower  slopes  of  that  splendid  snow-clad 
mountain,  whose  glittering  mass,  visible  even  as  far  south  as 
the  Dead  Sea,  magnificently  closes  the  northern  frontier  of 
Palestine — the  Mount  Hermon  of  Jewish  poetry.  Its  very 
name  means  'the  mountain'  (Luke  ix.  28),  and  the  scene 
which  it  witnessed  would  well  suffice  to  procure  for  it  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  only  mountain  to  which  in  Scripture  is  at- 
tached the  epithet  'holy.'  On  these  dewy  pasturages,  cool 
and  fresh  with  the  breath  of  the  snow-clad  heights  above  them, 
and  offering  that  noble  solitude  among  the  grandest  scenes  of 
nature,  which  He  desired  as  the  refreshment  of  His  soul  for  the 
mighty  struggle  which  was  now  so  soon  to  come,  Jesus  would 
find  many  a  spot  where  He  could  kneel  with  His  disciples  ab- 
sorbed in  silent  prayer." 1  "  There,  as  He  prayed  He  was  trans- 
figured before  them  :  and  His  face  did  shine  as  the  sun,  and 
His  raiment  was  white  as  the  light.  And  behold  there  ap- 
peared unto  them  Moses  and  Elias  talking  with  Him."  "And 
there  was  a  cloud  that  overshadowed  them  :  and  a  voice  came 
out  of  the  cloud,  saying,  This  is  my  beloved  Son  :  hear  Him." 
(Matt.  xvii.  1-8 ;  Mark  ix.  1-9;  Luke  vii.  28.)  "  There  was 
a  deep  significance  in  the  time  and  place  at  which  this  mani- 
festatir^»  of  Divine  glory  was  made.  It  was  the  northern  limit 
of  His  earthly  ministry.  It  was  also  at  the  close  of  His  last 
missionary  journey.  Henceforward  His  face  was  '  steadfastly 
set  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem,'  for  '  the  time  was  come  that  He 
should  be  received  up.'  He  now  commenced  the  pilgrimage 
southward  of  which  the  cross  was  the  foreseen  goal.  Step  by 
step  along  the  return  road  He  pressed  onward,  each  step  bring- 
ing Him  nearer  to  the  decease  which  He  should  accomplish  at 
Jerusalem,  of  which  '  Moses  and  Elias  spake  with  Him  '  as  they 
appeared  in  glory."  2 

While  by  common  consent  Mount  Hermon  is  accorded  a 
place  among  the  Sacred  Mountains,  it  is  generally  regarded  as 
a  border  land-mark  outside  the  inheritance  of  Israel.  In  other 

1  Life  of  Christ,  p.  242.  a"0r.  Manning's  Holy  Fields,  p.  219. 


300 


The  Land  of  Israel 


words  the  boundaries  of  the  land  on  the  west,  south  and  east, 
as  usually  defined,  extend  only  to  the  base  or  outskirts  of 
Mount  Hermon.  This  virtual  exclusion  of  the  "  Holy  Mount  " 
from  the  "  Holy  Land  "  does  not  seem  to  be  warranted  by  the 
Bibical  definition  of  the  trans- Jordanic  territory.  In  the  book 
of  Joshua  the  statement  is  made  that  Og  king  of  the  race  of 
giants  "  reigned  in  Mount  Hermon  and  in  Salcah  and  in  all 
Bashan."  (Josh.  xii.  4,  5.)  Following  this  is  the  record  that 
the  northern  portion  of  the  inheritance  which  Moses  gave  to 
Israel  beyond  Jordan,  eastward,  included  "  all  Mount  Hermon, 
and  all  Bashan  unto  Salcah."  (Josh.  xiii.  n.)  It  is  true  that 
the  extent  of  this  possession  as  a  whole,  is  elsewhere  indicated 
by  the  brief  formula — "from  the  river  of  Arnon  unto  Mount 
Hermon"  (Deut.  iii.  8,  iv.  48,  etc.),  but  this  phraseology  does 
not  necessarily  exclude  the  mountain,  or  any  part  of  it.  Its 
equivalent  is  the  more  familiar  phrase — "  from  Dan  even  to 
Beersheba."  In  this  case  Beersheba  is  as  certainly  included  as 
Dan.  A  similar  expression  occurs  in  the  description  of  the 
boundary  eastward,  viz  : — "  all  Bashan  unto  Salcah  and  Edrei, 
cities  of  the  kingdom  of  Og"  These  border  towns  were  noted 
cities  of  the  Amorite  king,  and  afterward  became  a  part  of  the 
possession  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  (Deut  iii.  13;  Josh, 
xii.  6.)  The  statement  above  quoted — "  all  Mount  Hermon, 
and  all  Bashan  unto  Salcah  " — is  given  in  connection  with  the 
account  of  the  actual  distribution  of  the  land  in  accordance 
with  the  original  assignment  by  Moses,  and  jt  is  as  definite  as 
language  can  make  it.  It  is  possible  that  Hermon  was  the 
"  high  hill  of  Bashan  "  to  which  reference  is  made  in  Psalm  Ixviii. 
14,  15,  but  it  is  usually  named  with  Bashan  as  though  it  were 
regarded  as  distinct  from  it.  It  is  certain,  however,  as  Dr. 
Smith  intimates,  that  the  reference  to  Bashan  in  Deut.  xxxiii. 
22 — "  Dan  is  a  lion's  whelp ;  he  leapethfrom  Bashan"  car- 
ries the  name  to  the  very  foot  of  Hermon.  "  Whether  Her- 
mon itself  was  known  as  the  mount  or  mountains  of  Bashan, 
or  whether  the  latter  name  designates  the  whole  of  that  eastern 


The  Anti -Lebanon  Mountains  301 

range  ib  uncertain — the  poet  says,  mountains  of  bold  heights 
are  the  mount  of  Bashan.  This  epithet,  not  applicable  to  the 
long,  level  edge  of  the  table-land,  might  refer  either  to  the  lofty 
triple  summit  of  Hermon,  or  to  the  many  broken  cones  that  are 
scattered  across  Bashan,  and  so  greatly  differ  in  their  volcanic 
form  from  the  softer,  less  imposing  heights  of  Western  Pales- 
tine."' 

i  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  550. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  TRANS-JORDANIC   HIGHLANDS 

THE  inheritance  given  by  Moses  to  the  two  and  one  half 
tribes  on  "  the  side  of  Jordan  toward  the  sun  rising,"  included 
all  the  territory  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  two  Amorite 
kings  Sihon  and  Og.  (Deut.  iii.  1-16;  Josh.  xii.  1-6,  xiii. 
8-15.)  Its  boundary  on  the.  north  was  on  or  near  the  southern 
limit  of  Aram  of  Damascus.  On  the  east  it  was  bordered  by 
the  irregular  line  of  the  desert;  on  the  south  by  the  river 
Arnon. 

The  territory  thus  defined  is  not  less  than  130  miles  in 
length.  In  breadth  it  varies  from  twenty-five  to  seventy  or 
eighty  miles.  The  widest  part  is  at  the  upper  or  northern  end. 
It  is  a  broad  expanse  of  table-land  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  its  extent.  Its  average  elevation  is  nearly  2,000  feet  above 
sea  level  or  2,800  above  the  level  of  the  Jordan  valley.  The 
elevated  region  between  the  river  Arnon  and  the  south  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea  was  the  possession  of  the  Moabites  when  Israel 
reached  the  Jordan,  and  was  secured  from  invasion  by  the 
command  of  Jehovah.  (Deut.  ii.  9.)  Moab  was  tributary  to 
Israel  during  the  reign  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  after  the 
separation  of  Israel  from  Judah  continued  under  Israel  until 
after  the  death  of  Ahab.  This  territory  is  so  closely  related  to 
the  adjoining  possession  of  the  Israelites  north  of  the  Arnon, 
and  so  closely  associated  with  its  people  and  its  history  that  it 
i.*  usually  grouped  with  it  under  the  name  of  Moab. 

The  Old  Testament  divisions  of  the  land,  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, now  known  as  Eastern  Palestine,  were  Bashan,  Gilead 
and  Moab.  We  shall  follow  these  divisions  in  their  order  in 
the  study  of  this  section. 

808 


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The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  303 

I.     BASHAN. 

The  land  of  Bashan  extends  from  the  border  of  the  highland 
region  south  of  the  Awaj  or  Pharpar  river  to  the  river  Yarmuk 
or  Hieromax.  The  line  of  division  between  Bashan  and 
Gilead  inclines  to  the  southeast  and  terminates  at  Salcah,  OR 
the  edge  of  the  desert,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Jebel  Hauran. 

The  district  of  Jedur,  which  was  called  Iturea  in  the  days 
of  the  Roman  occupation  (Luke  iii.  i),  occupies  the  northmost 
portion  of  this  territory.  The  southern  boundary  of  Iturea 
is  not  definitely  given,  but  it  probably  extended  in  a  southeast 
direction  as  far  down  as  the  latitude  of  the  northern  end  of 
Lake  Huleh.  This  district  was  occupied  in  the  period  of  the 
Judges,  and  possibly  from  an  earlier  date,  by  a  strong  force  of 
Hagarites,  or  Ishmaelites,  who  gave  their  names  to  its  towns. 
The  district  itself  took  its  name  from  Jetur,  a  son  of  Ishmael. 
(Gen.  xxv.  15.)  Jedur  is  a  rich  pastoral  region  to  which  the 
descendants  of  Ishmael  still  come  from  the  edge  of  the  desert 
in  the  early  spring  to  find  pastures  for  their  flocks  and  herds. 
In  the  days  of  King  Saul,  the  Hagarite  occupants  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  country  were  conquered  by  the  Israelites  beyond 
Jordan  and  the  children  of  Manasseh  took  possession  of  their 
cities  "and  dwelt  in  their  stead  until  the  captivity.  The 
spoils  taken  at  this  time  included  50,000  camels,  250,000  sheep 
and  2,000  asses."  (i  Chron.  v.  18-23.) 

Canon  Tristram  describes  Jedur  as  "  a  table-land  with  many 
conical  hills :  the  southern  portion  consisting  of  fine  pasture 
plains,  but  the  northern,  nearer  Hermon,  very  different,  look- 
ing like  *a  stormy  sea  of  black  molten  rock  suddenly  arrested 
and  petrified,  which  indeed  it  is,  being  a  rugged  surface  of 
lava,  with  deep  fissures  in  all  directions."  Dr.  Porter  col- 
lected the  names  of  thirty-eight  ruined  sites  in  this  district,  but 
none  of  them  have  any  Scripture  associations. 

South  of  Jedur  Bashan  divides  naturally  into  three  longi- 
tudinal sections,  known  as  the  Jaulan  (Gaulanitis),  the  Hauran, 
and  the  Lejah  or  Trachonitis. 


304 


The  Land  of  Israel 


The  Jaulan  takes  its  name  from  Golan  one  of  its  chief 
cities,  which  Moses  designated  as  the  northern  city  of  refuge. 
(Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  8,  xxi.  27.)  This  district  includes 
the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  with  a  broad  strip  of  the 
plateau  on  the  summit,  from  the  basin  of  the  Huleh  under 
Hermon  to  the  Yarmuk. 

"  The  Roman  province  of  Gaulanitis,"  says  Dr.  Smith, 
"must  have  been  practically  the  same  as  the  present  Jaulan, 
or  all  the  country  between  the  Yarmuk  (Hieromax)  and  Her- 
mon, with  an  uncertain  eastern  border  along  perhaps  the  river 
Allan."  Its  width  in  this  case  at  the  widest  part  would  be 
about  fifteen  miles.  Schumacher,  who  has  surveyed  and  de- 
scribed the  Jaulan,  estimates  its  extent  to  be  about  560  square 
miles.  Like  the  Jedur  this  district  abounds  in  rich  pastures.  It 
rises  by  a  series  of  steps  or  terraces  to  the  breezy  heights  which 
stretch  far  beyond  its  limits,  and  its  ruined  sites  indicate  that 
it  once  sustained  a  large  settled  population.  Oak  forests  cover 
some  of  the  conical  hills  and  are  occasionally  found  along  the 
slopes  of  the  mountains.  Golan,  the  city  which  gave  this  dis- 
trict its  name,  has  not  been  satisfactorily  identified.  A  possi- 
ble site,  suggested  by  Dr.  Merrill,  is  Nawa  near  the  source  of 
Wady  Allan. 

Tell  Ashtarah  a  few  miles  south  of  Nawa  is  supposed  to  be 
the  site  of  the  city  of  Ashtaroth,  of  the  Rephaim.  (Gen.  xiv.  5  ; 
Deut.  i.  4;  Josh.  xii.  4.) 

Aphek,  now  Fik,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Wady  Fik  on  the 
high  road  to  Damascus.  This  place  was  the  scene  of  two 
battles  with  the  Syrians  which  resulted  in  victory  to  trfe  Israel- 
ites, (i  Kings  xx.  26-30;  2  Kings  xiii.  17.) 

Gamala  (Kulat-el  Husn)  has  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  sites  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Galilee. 

The  Hauran,  strictly  speaking,  extends  eastward  of  the 
Jaulan  to  the  desert.  In  its  narrower  sense  it  applies  to  the 
level  treeless  plain  between  the  Jaulan  and  the  Lejah  and 
southeastward  to  the  Jebel  Hauran  range.  This  central  plain 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  305 

is  nearly  fifty  miles  in  length  and  fifteen  or  twenty  in  width. 
The  portion  of  the  plain  which  inclines  to  the  southeast  and  is 
directly  south  of  the  lava  district  (El  Lejah)  is  called  En 
Nukra  (Hollow  Hearth)  by  the  Arabs.  Some  authorities  apply 
the  name  Hauran  to  this  portion  exclusively  and  extend  the 
limits  of  the  Jaulan  so  as  to  include  all  of  the  plateau  west  of 
the  Lejah. 

The  great  Hajj  road  traverses  the  length  of  the  Hauran  and 
thence  passes  southward  along  thj  west  border  of  the 
desert.  The  old  caravan  road  from  Gamala  and  the 
railroad,  which  leaves  the  Lake  at  Gersa,  touch  the  Hajj 
road  near  Acre  in  the  Hauran.  The  Damascus-Hauran 
railroad  runs  directly  south  to  Mezarib  very  near  the  lower  end 
of  the  great  plain.  This  road  is  now  carrying  grain  and  pro- 
duce of  various  kinds  to  Damascus  and  is  reported  to  be  a  prof- 
itable investment. 

The  loose  volcanic  soil  of  the  Hauran  produces  the  finest 
wheat  in  all  Syria.  The  grain  is  hard  and  semi-transparent  and 
the  yield  is  enormous.  "The  natural  wealth  of  the  soil  here," 
says  Dr.  Merrill,  "is  a  constant  surprise.  I  have  seen  men 
on  this  plain  turning  furrows  which  were  nearly  one  mile  in 
length  and  as  straight  as  one  could  draw  a  line."  This  de- 
scription of  the  southern  portion  of  the  plain  is  applicable  to  it 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  Dr.  Smith  gives  the  following 
description  of  its  harvests  and  threshing  floors : 

The  surface  of  the  plain  is  broken  only  by  a  mound  or  two,  by  a  few 
shallow  water-courses,  by  some  short  outcrops  of  basalt,  and  by  villages  of 
the  same  stone,  the  level  black  line  of  their  roofs  cut  by  a  tower  or  the 
jagged  gable  of  an  old  temple. 

All  else  is  a  rolling  prairie  of  rich,  red  soil,  under  wheat,  or  lying  for 
the  year  fallow  in  pasture.  It  is  a  land  of  harvest,  and  if  you  traverse  it 
in  summer  fills  you  with  the  wonder  of  its  wealth.  Through  the  early 
day  the  camels,  piled  high  with  sheaves,  five  or  seven  swaying  corn  stacks 
on  a  string,  draw  in  from  the  fields  to  the  threshing-floors.  These  lie 
along  the  village  walls,  each  of  them  some  fifty  square  yards  of  the  plain, 
trodden  hard  and  fenced  by  a  low,  dry  dyke.  The  sheaves  are  strewn  to 


306 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  the  threshing  sledges,  curved  slabs  of 
wood,  studded  with  basalt  teeth,  are  dragged  up  and  down  by  horses, 
driven  by  boys  who  stand  on  the  sledges  and  sing  as  they  plunge  over  the 
billows  of  straw.  Poor  men  have  their  smaller  crops  trodden  out  by 
donkeys  driven  in  a  narrow  circle  three  abreast,  exactly  in  the  fashion 
depicted  on  the  old  Egyptian  monuments. 

When  the  whole  mass  is  cut  and  bruised  enough,  it  is  tossed  with  great 
forks  against  the  afternoon  wind,  the  chopped  straw  is  stored  for  fodder  in 
some  ancient  vault  that  has  kept  the  rain  out  since  the  days  of  Agrippa 
or  the  Antonines ;  but  the  winnowed  grain  is  packed  in  bags  and  carried 
on  camels  to  the  markets  of  Damascus  and  Acre.1 

The  Lejah. — The  Hauran  plain  is  bordered  on  the  east  by 
a  lava  district  absolutely  unique  in  its  physical  characteristics. 
It  is  called  El  Lejah  " the  refuge"  by  the  Arabs.  Its  identifi- 
cation with  Trachonitis  "the  rough  region"  of  the  Greeks, 
(Luke  iii.  i)  and  with  Argob  "the  stony"  of  the  Hebrews 
(Deut.  iii.  4)  has  been  satisfactorily  established. 

The  Lejah  is  a  vast  uplifted  mass  of  congealed  lava,  sixty 
miles  in  circumference  and  350  square  miles  in  extent.  It  is  an 
irregular  oval  in  outline,  about  twenty-five  miles  in  length  from 
north  to  south  by  fifteen  in  breadth.  This  rugged  mass,  which 
rises  to  an  elevation  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet  above  the  plain,  is 
encircled  by  a  rampart  "as  clearly  defined  as  a  rocky  shore 
line." 

The  Lejah  has  been  described  as  a  "  tempest  in  stone  "  ;  as  a 
"  black  motionless  sea,  with  waves  of  petrified  lava"  ;  as  "  an  im- 
pregnable mountain  fortress";  and  a  "labyrinth"  whose 
intricacies,  and  cavernous  depths  and  winding  paths  can  only 
be  traced  by  a  native  guide.  "  Although  barren  and  incapable 
of  cultivation,  and  almost  entirely  destitute  of  fountains  and 
streams,  yet  there  are  several  "pasturing  places"  in  and  about 
the  Lejah ;  and  it  is  dotted  with  the  remains  of  old  towns,  some 
of  which  were  places  of  considerable  size  and  importance. 
Thither  the  people  restorted  in  ancient  times  from  all  sides,  and 
in  this  Lejah  or  asylum  they  dwelt  secure  from  the  raids  of  law- 
1  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  612. 


The  Trans- Jordan ic  Highlands  307 

less  tribes,  and  bade  defiance  to  the  attacks  of  even  regular  and 
well-disciplined  troops."  1  "The  bed  in  its  outline  or  edge," 
says  Dr.  Merrill,  « « is  far  from  being  regular,  but  sends  out  at  a 
multitude  of  points  black  promontories  of  rock  into  the  sur- 
rounding plain.  Through  this  rugged  shore  there  are  a  few 
openings  into  the  interior,  but  for  the  most  part  it  is  impassable, 
and  roads  had  to  be  excavated  to  the  towns  situated  within 
it."2 

The  Lejah  or  Argob  was  the  stronghold  of  the  kingdom  of 
Og.  In  this  region,  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  were  "three- 
score cities,  all  fenced  with  high  walls,  gates  and  bars ;  beside 
imwalled  towns  a  great  many."  (Deut.  iii.  4,  5.)  It  is  also 
recorded  that  "  Jair  the  son  of  Manasseh  took  all  the  country 
of  Argob  unto  the  coasts  of  Geshuri  and  Maachathi ;  and 
called  them  after  his  own  name,  Bashan-havoth-jair."  (Deut. 
iii.  14.)  In  Solomon's  time  it  had  lost  none  of  its  distinctive 
features,  for  it  is  reported  in  the  list  of  tribute  paying  districts 
as  a  region  containing  "threescore  great  cities  with  walls  and 
brazen  bars."  (i  Kings  iv.  13.)  It  is  interesting  to  note  in 
this  connection  that  more  than  seventy-five  villages  and  cities  of 
ancient  towns  have  been  found  by  explorers  within  and  im- 
mediately around  the  Lejah.  Many  of  these  are  deserted 
cities  or  dead  towns,  and  "  are  still  in  such  a  condition  that  but 
few  repairs  are  necessary  to  render  them  habitable.  The  ex- 
planation is,  that  all  the  dwellings  and  larger  edifices  in  this  re- 
gion were  constructed  entirely  of  stone  gateways,  walls,  doors, 
windows,  stairs,  and  roofs  were  all  made  of  the  imperishable 
doleritic  lava,  hard  as  adamant."  * 

Of  the  sixty  great  cities  of  the  Argob  only  two  are  mentioned 
by  name — Edrei  and  Kenath — and  these  have  been  identified 
with  two  of  the  ancient  cities  which  encircle  the  rocky  rampart 
of  the  Lejah. 

1  Porter's  Five  years  in  Damascus,  p.  282. 
3  Merrill's  East  of  Jordan,  p.  II. 
3  The  Land  and  The  Book,  p.  470. 


308 


The  Land  of  Israel 


Edrei,  now  known  as  Edhra,  stands  on  a  rocky  promontory 
forty  or  fifty  feet  above  the  plain  on  the  southwest  border  of 
the  Lejah.  It  is  almost  due  east  of  Nawa,  and  about  sixty 
miles  from  the  north  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  On  the  maps 
of  eastern  Palestine  Edhra  is  frequently  designated  by  its 
Roman  name  Zora  or  Zorava. 

"  This  ancient  city  is  in  a  locality  which  meets  the  requirements  of  the 
Biblical  narrative,  and  still  bears  a  name  which  may  be  regarded  as 
identical  with  that  mentioned  by  Moses.  (Deut.  iii.  i.)  The  existing 
ruins  are  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  although  many  of  the 
houses  and  other  edifices  in  their  present  condition  are  of  an  age  com- 
paratively modern,  yet  they  were  erected  on  foundations  and  out  of  ma- 
terials far  more  ancient.  Most  of  the  present  inhabitants  reside  in  the 
vaults  of  old  structures  which  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  under  ground,  so 
great  is  the  accumulation  above  them  of  the  debris  of  ruined  buildings. 
To  reach  them  one  has  to  descend  into  subterranean  courts  and  caverns."  l 

"  The  most  interesting  remains,"  says  Tristram,  "  are  the  small  houses  of 
remote  antiquity,  known  familiarly  as  those  of  the  giant  cities,  with  their 
walls  of  great  blocks  of  basalt,  closely  fitted,  but  not  in  regular  courses, 
their  stone  roofs  and  their  solid  stone  doors  and  windows  still  moving  in 
the  same  sockets  or  cup  and  ball  joints  on  which  they  have  turned  for 
thousands  of  years."  2 

Edrei  was  the  capital  of  the  giant  King  Og,  and  the  battle- 
field where  he  lost  his  life  and  kingdom  was  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  (Num.  xxi.  33-35  ;  Josh.  xii.  4,  xiii.  12.) 

The  ruins  of  an  ancient  city  called  Dera  or  Dra'a,  sixteen 
miles  southwest  of  Edhra  have  been  suggested  as  a  possible  site 
of  Edrei,  but  the  northern  city  appears  to  have  the  weight  of 
argument  and  authority  in  its  favor.  It  is  possible  that  there 
were  two  places  with  the  same  name  in  Bashan,  as  some  writers 
have  suggested,  and  that  Dra'a  or  Dera  was  the  place  mentioned 
in  Deut.  i.  4,  and  Josh.  xii.  4,  in  connection  with  Ashtaroth. 

Kenath,  (Kanatha  of  the  Greeks)  has  been  identified  with 
a  ruined  city  of  large  proportions  at  the  lower  or  southeast  ex- 
tremity of  the  Lejah,  called  Kunawat.  "  The  city  overlooks  a 

i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  461.  *  Holy  Land,  p.  ioc, 


The  Trans- Jordan ic  Highlands  309 

vast  region,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  cluster  of  cities  or  towns, 
all  within  a  distance  of  half  an  hour  or  two  hours  from  it. 
There  could  not  be  a  more  appropriate  phrase  than  '  Kenath 
with  her  daughter  towns/  (Num.  xxii.  42;  i  Chron.  ii.  23), 
which  is  applied  to  this  ancient  city  in  the  midst  of  a  large 
group  of  smaller,  but  still  important  places."  1  The  following 
description  of  the  present  appearance  of  Kunawat  is  given  by 
Dr.  Porter : 

The  wall,  still  in  many  places  almost  perfect,  follows  the  top  of  the 
cliffs  for  nearly  a  mile,  and  then  sweeps  round  in  a  zigzag  course,  en- 
closing a  space  about  half  a  mile  wide.  The  general  aspect  of  the  city  is 
very  striking — temples,  palaces,  churches,  theatres,  and  massive  buildings 
whose  original  use  we  cannot  tell,  are  grouped  together  in  picturesque 
confusion ;  while  beyond  the  walls,  in  the  glen,  on  the  summits  and  sides 
of  wooded  peaks,  away  in  the  midst  of  oak  forests,  are  clusters  of  columns 
and  massive  towers,  and  lofty  tombs.  The  leading  streets  are  wide  and 
regular,  and  the  roads  radiating  from  the  city  gates  are  unusually  numer- 
ous and  spacious.  .  .  .  Many  of  the  ruins  of  Kenath  are  beautiful 
and  interesting.  The  highest  part  of  the  site  was  the  aristocratic  quarter. 
Here  is  a  noble  palace,  no  less  than  three  temples  and  a  hippodrome  once 
profusely  adorned  with  statues.  In  no  other  part  of  Palestine  did  I  see  so 
many  statues  as  there  are  here.  Unfortunately  they  are  all  mutilated ;  but 
fragments  of  them — heads,  legs,  arms,  torsos,  with  equestrian  figures,  lions, 
leopards,  and  dogs — meet  one  on  every  side.  A  colossal  head  of  Ashta- 
roth,  sadly  broken,  lies  before  a  little  temple,  of  which  probably  it  was 
once  the  chief  idol.  The  crescent  moon  which  gave  the  name  Carnaim 
("  two  horned  ")  to  the  goddess  is  on  her  brow. 

About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  west  of  the  city  is  a  beautiful  peripteral 
temple  of  the  Corinthian  order,  built  on  an  artificial  platform.  Many  of 
the  columns  have  fallen,  and  the  walls  are  much  shattered ;  but  enough  re- 
mains to  make  this  one  of  the  most  picturesque  ruins  in  the  whole  coun- 
try.2 

It  is  recorded  in  the  book  of  Numbers  that  "  Nobah  went 
and  took  Kenath  and  the  villages  thereof,  and  called  it  Nobah, 
after  his  own  name"  (xxxii.  42).  It  was  known  by  this  name 

1  Merrill's  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  37. 

2  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  p.  42,  43. 


310 


The  Land  of  Israel 


in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  for  we  are  told  that  Gideon,  when 
pursuing  the  two  kings  of  Midian,  '  <  went  up  by  the  way  of 
them  that  dwell  in  tents  on  the  east  of  Nobah,  and  smote  the 
host."  (Judg.  viii.  4-11.)  In  later  times  the  old  name  was 
restored.  Afterward  it  took  the  form  of  Kanatha.  Kenath 
was  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis  and  the  farthest  to  the 
east,  in  this  group. 

Jebel  Hauran. — The  range  of  mountains  which  borders 
the  east  side  of  En  Nukra — the  lower  basin  of  the  great  plain 
— is  usually  designated  as  Jebel  Hauran.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Druse  mountain  or  Jebel  ed  Druze.  The  length  of 
the  range  is  about  forty  miles.  It  has  several  conspicuous 
peaks  and  divergent  spurs.  The  highest  point,  El  Kuleib,  is 
5,730  feet  above  the  sea.  These  mountains  have  been  de- 
scribed as  "  picturesque  and  occasionally  even  grand."  The 
ridges  are  clothed  with  forests  of  evergreen  oak  and  the  slopes 
give  evidence  of  careful  terrace-cultivation  in  former  times. 
The  best  specimens  of  the  famous  "  oaks  of  Bashan  "  grow  on 
these  rocky  heights,  and  the  richest  portion  of  the  Hauran, 
"the  granary  of  Syria"  lies  at  their  base.  Farther  to  the 
north  and  west  were  the  great  cattle  ranges,  to  which  reference 
has  been  already  made,  where  "  rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan  " 
and  "bulls  of  Bashan  "  found  nourishing  pasturages  long  cen- 
turies ago ;  and  where  flocks  and  herds  still  roam  in  almost 
countless  numbers.  Says  Dr.  Smith  : 

"One  afternoon  which  we  spent  at  Edrei,  the  Aneezeh  tribe,  that 
roams  from  Euphrates  to  Jordan,  drove  their  camels  upon  the  plain  to  the 
north  of  the  town  till  we  counted  nearly  a  thousand  feeding,  and  there 
was  a  multitude  more  behind.  Next  day  we  passed  their  foes,  the  Beni 
Sahr,  one  of  whose  camel-herds  numbered  40x3,  and  another  200.  We 
looked  southeast  from  the  hills  above  Amman,  and  there  were  hundreds 
more  of  the  Sherarat  Arabs  from  Ma'an.  '  Profusion  of  camels  shall 
cover  lheet  camels  of  Midian  and  Ephah,  all  of  them  from  Sheba  shall 
come?  The  Bedouin  had  also  many  sheep  and  goats.  The  herds  of  the 
settled  inhabitants  were  still  more  numerous."  » 
1  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  523. 


The  Tnins-Jordanic  Highlands  311 

The  exact  limits  of  the  district  of  Batanaea  cannot  be  de- 
fined, but  it  is  generally  agreed  that  it  included  the  Jebel 
Hauran  range  and  a  portion  of  the  territory  directly  north  of 
it  which  is  still  known  as  "Ard  el  Bathanyeh,  the  land  of 
Bathanyeh." 

Salcah,  the  eastern  frontier  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Og  and 
of  the  possession  of  Israel,  has  been  identified  with  the  ruins 
of  a  city  at  the  southern  end  of  Jebel  Hauran,  which  still  bears 
the  name  of  Sulkhad.  This  frontier  town,  beyond  which  to 
the  east  lies  the  great  desert,  was  defended  by  a  fortress  on  a 
conical  hill  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Its  great  castle — the  Gibraltar  of  the  desert — is  a  prominent 
landmark  from  the  "plain  country  "  on  every  side.  It  is  built 
in  the  mouth  of  an  extinct  crater,  on  a  conical  swell  or  rise 
composed  of  porous  lava-rock.  The  walls  of  the  castle  are 
from  eighty  to  100  feet  high.  As  the  crater  is  bowl-shaped, 
there  is  a  deep  natural  moat  entirely  around  the  castle,  and 
the  fortress  is  approached  by  a  bridge  over  the  moat.  The 
interior  of  this  castle  is  a  perfect  labyrinth  of  halls,  galleries, 
chambers,  and  vaults,  which  are  now  in  a  very  confused 
and  ruined  state."1  Dr.  Porter  estimates  the  circumference 
of  the  town  and  castle  together  to  be  about  three  miles.  Some 
500  of  the  houses  of  Salcah  are  still  standing  and  "  from  300  to 
400  families  might  settle  in  it  at  any  moment  without  laying  a 
stone,  or  expending  an  hour's  labor  on  repairs.3  From  the 
castle  Dr.  Porter  counted  upward  of  thirty  deserted  towns. 

The  expression  "all  Bashan  unto  Salcah"  is  used  in  two 
passages  in  describing  the  territory  of  King  Og.  (Deut.  iii. 
10 ;  Josh.  xiii.  n.)  At  a  later  period  it  is  said  that  the  chil- 
dren of  Gad  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Bashan  unto  Salcah."  (i 
Chron.  v.  n.)  It  maybe  inferred  from  these  references,  but 
especially  from  the  last,  which  indicates  the  dividing  line  at 
that  time  between  Gad  and  Manasseh,  that  Salkah  was  the 
farthest  town  on  the  eastern  border  of  Bashan. 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  50.  *  Giant  Cities  c'  Jashan,  p.  76. 


312 


The  Land 


Another  ancient  stronghold  of  this  region,  whose  ruins  are 
said  to  be  as  extensive  as  those  of  Salcah,  lies  in  a  broad  valley 
at  the  south-western  base  of  Jebel  Hauran.  It  is  called  Kureieh 
by  the  Arabs  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  representative  of  the 
city  of  Kerioth  to  which  reference  is  made  in  Jer.  xlviii.  21  and 
Amos  ii.  2.  Several  towns  in  this  vicinity  are  mentioned  in 
connection  with  prophetic  denunciations  against  Moab.  The 
explanation  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Moabites  had  recovered 
for  a  time  their  old  pasture-lands  on  these  upland  pkins  as  far 
north  probably  as  the  edge  of  the  Hauran.  (See  Isa.  chaps, 
xv.  and  xvi ;  Jer.  xlviii.  3  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  8-n,  etc.) 

Bozrah,  now  Busrah,  was  the  chief  city  of  this  region  in 
the  period  of  the  Roman  occupation,  and  was  then  known  as 
Bostra.  It  is  twelve  miles  west  of  Salcah  on  the  line  of  the 
great  Military  and  caravan  route  which  crossed  the  Jordan 
below  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  thence  extended  eastward  to  the 
desert  in  the  direction  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Bozrah  of  Bashan  is  probably  the  city  to  which  reference  is 
made  in  Jer.  xlviii.  24,  and  should  be  distinguished  from 
Bozrah  of  Edom.  (Isa.  Ixiii.  i.) 

"  The  ruins  of  Bozrah,"  says  Dr.  Porter,  "  are  nearly  five  miles  in  cir- 
cuit ;  its  walls  are  lofty  and  massive ;  and  its  castle  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  strongest  fortresses  in  Syria.  Among  the  ruins  I  saw  two  theatres, 
six  temples,  and  ten  or  twelve  churches  and  mosques ;  besides  palaces, 
baths,  fountains,  aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  and  other  structures  almost 
without  number.  The  old  Bozrites  must  have  been  men  of  great  taste 
and  enterprise  as  well  as  wealth.  Some  of  the  buildings  I  saw  there 
would  grace  the  proudest  capital  of  modern  Europe.  .  .  .  Bozrah 
had  once  a  population  of  100,000  souls  and  more  ;  when  I  was  there 
its  whole  inhabitants  comprised  just  twenty  families  !  These  lived  huddled 
together  in  the  lower  stories  of  some  very  ancient  houses  near  the  castle. 
The  rest  of  the  city  is  completely  desolate."  l 

The  ruined  cities  of  the  Hauran  furnish  abundant  evidence 
on  every  hand  of  the  characteristic  features  of  Greek  and  Ro- 

i  Giant  Cites  of  Bashan,  p.  64. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  313 

man  civilizations.  Everywhere  Greek  architecture  inscriptions 
and  statuary  are  found  side  by  side  with  Roman  fortresses,  tem- 
ples, theatres,  and  Roman  roads.  With  these  also  are  found  the  re- 
mains of  Christian  basilicas  and  unquestionable  evidences  on 
tablets  of  imperishable  basalt  of  the  existence  of  active  Christian 
communities  throughout  this  province  in  the  days  of  persecution 
and  martyrdom  for  the  Gospel's  sake.  "  The  Christians  of  this 
region  must  have  suffered,  like  those  of  the  rest  of  Syria,  in  the 
persecutions  under  Decius  and  Diocletian,  and  it  is  perhaps 
owing  to  the  latter  Emperor's  order  for  the  destruction  of  all 
Christian  buildings  that  we  have  so  very  few  Christian  remains 
earlier  than  his  day.  Traces  of  these  great  persecutions  are 
still  eloquent  in  Hauran.  Here  is  *  the  cryptogram  for  Christ, 
the  Ichthus  of  the  Catacombs.  Here  as  in  the  Catacombs  the 
dead  are  spoken  of  as  "they  that  sleep,"  and  many  bits  of 
basalt  have  been  found  with  the  words,  or  syllables  of  the  words, 
Martyr  and  Martyr's  Monument.  These  latter  meet  you  in 
almost  every  village,  rendering  its  very  dust  dear  to  your  Chris- 
tian heart.  Even  the  nomads  raised  monuments  to  the 
martyrs.  One  longer  inscription  runs :  For  the  repose  of  the 
Martyrs  who  have  fallen  asleep ;  it  reminds  of  Stephen.  The 
erection  of  such  memorials  proves  a  day  in  which  Christianity 
was  able  to  show  itself  in  public,  and  there  are  others  that  re- 
cord its  gradual  triumph  over  paganism.  In  several  places 
have  been  found  the  words  'Help  O  Christ.'  On  the  lintel 
of  a  house  at  Tuffas  :  <  Jesus  Christ  be  the  shelter  and  defence 
of  all  the  family  of  the  house,  and  bless  their  incoming  and 
their  outgoing.'  On  another  tablet  is  the  quotation,  similarly 
adapted  to  Christ :  '  If  the  Lord  watch  not  the  city,  in  vain 
doth  the  watchman  keep  awake.'  Other  notable  expressions  of 
faith  and  feeling  are :  « O  Christ,  our  God ' ;  'the  Peace  of 
Christ  be  to  all ' ;  <  Peace  be  to  all  men,'  etc."  l 

Explorers  and  archaeologists  differ  in  opinion  with  respect  to 
the  age  of  the  massive  basaltic  structures  which  characterize  the 
*  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  632-4. 


314  The  Land  of  Israel 

cities  in  and  around  the  Lejah.  They  belong  unquestionably 
to  a  type  peculiar  to  the  region  itself,  and  are  found  for  the 
most  part  upright  and  unbroken,  amid  the  magnificent  ruins  of 
Greek  and  Roman  architecture  which  once  overshadowed  them. 

One  class  of  explorers  represented  by  Waddington,  De  Vogue 
and  Smith  assert  with  positive  emphasis  that  these  structures 
were  built  in  the  period  of  the  Roman  occupation,  and  present 
in  evidence  of  their  assertions  the  Greek  and  Roman  inscrip- 
tions, and  the  Christian  symbols,  found  upon  them  or  scattered 
about  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  These  Cyclopean  walls  and 
cities  of  stone  are  designated  as  * '  the  shells  of  the  Roman 
peace."  They  are,  in  other  words,  the  kind  of  cities  which 
Rome  would  be  likely  to  build  out  of  the  materials  at  hand,  on 
this  frontier  province  so  often  overswept  by  marauding  bands 
from  the  desert.  "  In  some  primeval  tranquillity  of  man,"  says 
Dr.  Smith,  "  'giant  cities  of  Bashan '  may  have  risen,  as  is  al- 
leged, on  this  margin  of  the  desert :  but  if  so,  these  are  not 
their  ruins."  l  De  Vogue,  who  has  given  his  views  of  Hauran 
architecture  in  a  costly  and  beautifully  illustrated  volume,  asserts 
that  he  had  not  met  with  structures  of  a  more  ancient  date  than 
the  first  to  the  seventh  centuries  of  our  era.  These  views  are 
based  upon  the  assumption,  buttressed,  as  its  supporters  claim, 
by  evidences  drawn  from  the  region  itself,  that  the  Hauran, 
prior  to  the  period  of  the  Roman  occupation,  was  held  by  a  suc- 
cession of  nomadic  tribes,  who  were  incapable  of  erecting  such 
elaborate  and  carefully  planned  structures. 

Another  class  of  explorers,  represented  by  Ritter,  Porter  and 
Tristram,  have  been  convinced,  as  the  result  of  careful  study  of 
this  type  of  Hauran  architecture  and  its  comparison  with  the 
Biblical  descriptions  of  this  region  in  the  time  of  Moses,  that 
the  wonderful  cities  now  found  in  and  around  the  Lejah,  with 
their  gates  and  bars,  and  habitations  of  imperishable  basalt,  are 
the  actual  remains  of  the  ancient  giant  cities  of  Bashan.  In 
support  of  this  view,  it  is  argued  that  the  number  and  positions 
1  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  624. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  315 

of  these  stone  cities  correspond  with  the  Argob  cities  of  tb 
Biblical  record  ;  that  the  names  of  some  of  them  have  con 
down  to  us  with  locations  which  correspond  with  the  sacred 
narrative  ;  that  in  some  cases  these  basaltic  structures  have  been 
overlaid  by  easily  distinguished  structures  of  Greek  and  Roman 
architecture ; l  and  that  the  assumption  of  a  continuous  reign  of 
barbarism  in  the  Hauran  prior  to  the  Roman  occupation  is  not 
in  accord  with  the  historical  descriptions  given  of  this  country 
and  the  inducements  its  conquest  offered  to  invaders  from  east- 
tern  lands.  The  following  quotations  from  the  works  of  Porter 
and  Tristram  give  the  main  arguments  in  support  of  this  view  : 

The  simplicity  of  the  style  of  these  buildings,  their  low  roofs,  the  pon- 
derous blocks  of  roughly  hewn  stone  with  which  they  are  built,  the  great 
thickness  of  the  walls,  and  the  heavy  slabs  which  form  the  ceilings, — all 
point  to  a  period  far  earlier  than  the  Roman  age,  and  probably  even 
antecedent  to  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Israelites.  Moses 
makes  special  mention  of  the  strong  cities  of  Bashan,  and  speaks  of  their 
high  walls  and  gates.  He  tells  us,  too,  in  the  same  connection,  that 
Bashan  was  called  the  land  of  the  giants  (or  Rephaim,  Deut.  iii.  13)  ;  leav- 
ing us  to  conclude  that  the  cities  were  built  by  giants.  Now  the  houses  of 
Kerioth  and  other  towns  in  Bashan  appear  to  be  just  such  dwellings  as  a 
race  of  giants  would  build.  The  walls,  the  roofs,  but  especially  the  pon- 
derous gates,  doors,  and  bars,  are  in  every  way  characteristic,  of  a  period 
when  architecture  was  in  its  infancy,  when  giants  were  masons,  and  when 
strength  and  security  were  the  grand  requisites.  I  measured  a  door  in 
Kerioth :  it  was  nine  feet  high,  four  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  ten  inches 
thick, — one  solid  slab  of  stone.  I  saw  the  folding  gates  of  another  town 
in  the  mountains  still  larger  and  heavier.  Time  produces  little  effect  on 
such  buildings  as  these.  The  heavy  stone  slabs  of  the  roofs  resting  on 
the  massive  walls  make  the  structure  as  firm  as  if  built  of  solid  masonry ; 
and  the  black  basalt  used  is  almost  as  hard  as  iron.  There  can  scarcely 
be  a  doubt,  therefore,  that  these  are  the  very  cities  erected  and  inhabited 
by  the  Rephaim,  the  original  occupants  of  Bashan ;  and  the  language  of 
Ritter  appears  to  be  true  :  "  These  buildings  remain  as  eternal  witnesses 
of  the  conquest  of  Bashan  by  Jehovah."2 

The  evidence  of  the  sixty  cities  of  Argob,  says  Tristram,  is  patent. 
The  cities  are  there,  and  more  than  sixty,  all  attesting  their  antiquity  by 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  475.  2  Giant  Cities,  p.  84. 


316 


The  Land  of  Israel 


their  antique  Cyclopean  architecture,  with  the  basalt  slabs  for  roofs  and 
doors.  We  read  of  their  gates  and  bars.  The  huge  doors  and  gates  of 
stone  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  the  places  for  the  bars,  which  can  still  be 
seen,  take  us  back  to  the  very  time  of  Moses ;  perhaps  even  earlier — for, 
in  the  first  campaign  recorded  in  history,  Chedorlaomer  smote  the 
Rephaims  in  Ashteroth  Karnaim.  (Gen.  xiv.  5.)  .  .  .  The  buildings, 
like  their  names,  may  have  come  down  from  the  days  of  Abraham. 
Chedorlaomer  also  smote  the  Emims  in  the  plain  of  Kiriathaim,  and  the 
houses  of  Kureiyeh,  or  Kerioth,  are  probably  the  very  work  of  the 
Emims.  In  the  days  of  the  Romans  these  places  were  held  to  be  the 
work  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  (M.  Marcellin).  This  could  not  have  been 
said  of  any  Greek  or  Grseco-Syrian  building ;  and  we  may  be  quite  sure 
that  the  tent-loving  children  of  Manasseh  were  not  a  building  race.  Besides 
cities  of  some  sort  were  there  when  they  took  the  land;  and  it  is  more  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  not  the  Amorite,  whom  they  dispossessed,  but  even 
their  predecessors,  the  Rephaim,  were  the  constructors,  than  to  bring  them 
down  to  a  later  date.1 


Among  those  who  accept  without  hesitation  the  Biblical 
testimony  that  Bashan  had  fortified  cities  and  a  settled  popu- 
lation long  before  the  Roman  period,  there  are  many  who  do 
not  regard  these  habitations  in  their  present  condition  as  neces- 
sarily the  work  of  the  aborigines  of  the  country.  There  can 
scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  they  for  the  most  part  occupy  the  sites 
of  these  ancient  cities,  and  also  represent  a  type  of  architecture 
which  has  prevailed  in  this  region  from  the  earliest  ages,  but  it 
is  scarcely  conceivable  that  several  successive  nationalites  should 
occupy  these  structures  without  making  changes  or  modifications, 
even  if  time  and  the  destructive  forces  of  nature  had  left  them 
unharmed.  "The  fact  should  be  considered,"  says  Dr.  Mer- 
rill, "that  in  this  country  the  eligible  sites  for  cities  would  be 
selected  when  men  first  began  to  build,  and  such  would  remain 
the  eligible  sites  as  long  as  the  country  was  inhabited  by  civi- 
lized races.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  say  how  many  layers 
of  civilization  may  exist  beneath  any  one  of  these  important 
Hauran  towns."8  On  this  point  rather  than  upon  the  actual 


Holy  Land,  p.  306. 


»  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  74. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  317 

identification  of  the  habitations  which  remain  with  the  giant 
builders  of  the  kingdom  of  Og,  the  stress  should  be  laid. 

There  is  certainly  as  good  evidence  for  the  identification  of 
some  of  these  places — apart  from  their  associations  with  the 
Rephaim — with  the  cities  occupied  by  the  Israelites  from  Moses 
to  Solomon,  and  presumably  much  longer,  as  for  the  identifica- 
tion of  many  of  the  cities  whose  sites  are  accepted  without 
hesitation  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan. 

Job's  country — the  land  of  Uz — according  to  an  ancient 
tradition  of  the  Arabs,  was  situated  in  Southern  Bashan.  M. 
Waddington  found  an  inscription  in  honor  of  Job  at 
Bozrah  (Busrah),  and  several  localities  in  this  region 
have  been  associated  with  his  name  and  trials.  The 
history  of  this  tradition,  and  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
it,  are  summed  up  in  Oliphant's  Land  of  Gilead,  pp. 
83-91.  While  it  is  generally  agreed  that  some  portion 
of  the  "land  of  the  East  "  i.e.,  east  of  the  Jordan  valley 
or  Arabah — on  the  border  of  the  desert,  is  clearly  indi- 
cated in  the  Book  of  Job,  the  weight  of  authority,  at  the 
present  time,  is  in  favor  of  the  country  bordering  the 
desert  near  Petra  in  the  land  of  Edom. 

II.  GILEAD. 

The  land  of  Gilead,  as  usually  defined,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Yarmuk ;  on  the  south  by  the  Wady  Heshbon, 
which  enters  the  Ghor  near  the  north  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  Its  extent  from  north  to  south  is  sixty  miles. 

The  Yarmuk  river  receives  a  number  of  tributary  streams 
which  flow  across  the  great  plain  from  Jebel  Hauran,  but  its 
perennial  sources  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Mezarib.  Here  the 
Yarmuk  proper  begins.  One  of  its  principal  southern  tributaries, 
the  Wady  Zeideh,  coming  from  the  mountains  near  Salcah,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  dividing  line  between  Bashan  and  Gilead 
east  of  Mezarib.  The  Yarmuk  flows  a  little  north  of  west 
for  nearly  half  its  length,  and  thence  southwest  to  the  Jor- 
dan valley.  For  most  of  its  course  it  passes  through  wild 


318 


The  Land  of  Israel 


narrow,  deeply-cleft  chasms.  "The  river  in  the  mountains 
runs  with  great  swiftness  along  its  rocky  chasm ;  in  the  Ghor 
it  has  its  own  lower  valley,  like  the  Jordan ;  and  is  everywhere 
thickly  skirted  with  oleanders.  The  stream  is  here  about  forty 
yards  wide ;  and  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is  four  or  five  feet 
deep.  It  enters  the  Jordan  five  miles  below  the  lake  of  Tibe- 
rias ;  and  has  there  nearly  as  much  water  as  the  Jordan." 

The  Jabbok  (Nahr  ez-Zerka)  enters  the  Ghor  a  little  more 
than  half-way  between  the  Yarmuk  and  the  Wady  Heshbon. 
The  district  north  of  it,  sometimes  designated  as  Northern 
Gilead,  is  a  rugged,  undulating  ridge  corresponding  in  its  nat- 
ural features  to  the  range  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan. 
It  differs  from  it,  however,  in  its  exuberant  fertility,  and  its  pic- 
turesque combinations  of  densely-wooded  heights,  open  glades, 
grass-covered  knolls,  and  gently-rolling  stretches  of  corn  and 
pasture  lands.  The  modern  name  of  this  mountain  tract  is 
Jebel  Ajlun.  In  Southern  Gilead  the  mountains  adjacent  to 
the  line  of  the  Jabbok  rise  to  the  highest  elevation  of  the 
series,  but  farther  to  the  south  the  summit  of  the  range  broadens 
out  into  a  wide  expanse  of  table-land,  corresponding  to  the 
great  upland  plains  of  Bashan  and  Moab.  The  Arabs  call  the 
whole  of  Gilead  south  of  the  Jabbok  the  Belka.  It  was  held 
by  Sihon  the  Amorite  king  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  but  had 
formerly  been  a  portion  of  the  possession  of  Moab.  (Num. 
xxi.  24-26.) 

"  From  first  to  last,  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok  is  of  great  fertility.  The 
head-waters  of  the  river  rise  on  the  edge  of  Moab,  only  some  eighteen 
miles  from  the  Jordan,  yet  to  the  east  of  the  water-parting.  So  the  river 
flows  at  first  desertwards,  under  the  name  of  Amman,  past  Rabbath-Am- 
mon  to  the  great  Hajj  road.  There  it  turns  north,  fetches  a  wide  compass 
northwest,  cuts  in  two  the  range  of  Gilead,  and  by  a  very  winding  bed 
flows  west-southwest  to  the  Jordan.  The  whole  course,  not  counting  the 
windings,  is  over  sixty  miles.  The  water  is  shallow,  always  fordable,  ex- 
cept where  it  breaks  between  steep  rocks,  mostly  brawling  over  a  stony 
bed,  muddy,  and,  at  a  distance,  of  a  grey-blue  color,  which  brings  it  its 
present  name  of  the  Zerka.  The  best  fields  are  upon  the  upper  reaches, 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  319 

where  much  wheat  is  grown,  but  almost  nowhere  on  the  banks  are  you  out 
of  sight  of  sheep,  or  cattle,  or  tillage.  A  great  road  from  Jordan  follows  the 
valley  all  the  way  to  the  desert,  another  runs  from  the  desert  by  Amman 
to  the  west.  The  river  has  always  been  a  frontier  and  a  line  of  traffic."  l 

The  "half  of  the  land  of  the  children  of  Ammon  "  which 
Sihon  had  taken  from  the  Ammonites,  and  which  afterward  be- 
came the  portion  of  Israel  by  conquest  (Josh.  xiii.  25  ;  Judg. 
xi.  21,  22)  was  a  fertile  strip  along  the  line  of  the  head-waters 
of  the  Jabbok  whose  principal  source  still  retains  its  old  name 
Amman. 

The  volcanic  deposits,  which  cover  the  limestone  beds  north 
of  the  Yarmuk,  disappear  in  Gilead  except  in  a  few  locations, 
and,  as  on  the  western  side,  the  limestone  comes  to  the  surface. 
The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  northern  section  of  Gilead  is 
the  almost  unbroken  succession  of  noble  forests  of  pine  and  oak 
which  clothe  the  high  ridges  and  frequently  extend  far  down 
the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  "Jebel  Ajlun,"  says  Dr.  Eli 
Smith,  "  presents  the  most  charming  rural  scenery  that  I  have 
seen  in  Syria :  a  continued  forest  of  noble  trees,  chiefly  the 
evergreen  oak,  sindian,  covers  a  large  part  of  it,  while  the 
ground  beneath  is  clothed  with  luxriant  grass,  a  foot  or  more 
in  height,  and  decked  with  a  rich  variety  of  wild  flowers."2 
Dr.  Thomson  thinks  it  probable  that  the  famous  "wood  of 
Ephraim"  in  which  the  battle  between  the  armies  of  David 
and  Absalom  was  fought  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  village 
of  Ajlun,  at  the  head  of  the  Wady  Ajlun  about  ten  miles  north 
of  the  river  Jabbok.  Here,  he  says,  maybe  seen  "many  a 
'great  oak'  and  terebinth  with  'thick  boughs,'  and  low,  wide- 
spreading  branches,  large  enough  to  have  caused  that  fatal  ac- 
cident to  Absalom,  and  which  proved  so  disastrous  to  his 
cause."  3  (2  Sam.  xviii.  6-14.)  The  precious  balsam  or  "balm 
in  Gilead  "  has  been  diligently  sought  among  the  "  trees  of  the 
wood  ' '  in  this  region,  but  without  success. 

1  Smith's  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  584.  2  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  575. 

3  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  578. 


320  The  Land  of  Israel 

The  highest  point,  and  the  most  prominent  topographical 
feature  of  the  Gilead  range  is  Jebel  Osha  (3,597  feet),  an 
isolated  peak  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Jabbok. 

Dr.  Merrill  gives  the  following  description  of  the  outlook 
from  this  mountain-peak : 

Jebel  Osha  is  perhaps  the  most  sightly  place  in  Palestine  after  Mount 
Hermon.  Mount  Hermon,  Safed,  the  hills  behind  Tiberias,  and  the  pla- 
teau which  slopes  toward  Hattin,  Tabor,  the  hills  about  Nazareth,  those 
of  Naphtali,  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  Little  Hermon,  Ebal  and  Gerizim, 
Neby  Samwil,  and  Massada  are  in  sight,  and  in  fact  nearly  every  prom- 
inent point  in  the  unbroken  range  of  mountains  from  Jebel  esh  Sheikh 
(Hermon)  clear  around  to  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  All  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  more  than  4,000  feet  below  us,  is  at  our  feet ;  the  plain  of 
Beisan,  the  tells  at  the  mouth  of  Wacly  Ajlun  and  Wady  ez-Zerka,  all  the 
Nimrin  and  the  Shittim  plains  and  the  tells  upon  them,  the  mouth  of  the 
Jordan,  the  entire  Dead  Sea,  including  the  extreme  south  end  and  el 
Lisan,  the  rolling  country  of  Moab,  or  the  Mishor  of  the  Bible,  the  hills 
about  Amman,  the  Hauran,  and  the  mountains  of  Gilead  are  in  full  view. 

In  this  wide  and  comprehensive  prospect  the  eye  sweeps  over  the  coun- 
try to  the  north,  the  west,  the  south  and  the  east — a  sweep  of  eighty  to 
loo  miles  in  extent.  If  one  utterly  ignorant  of  the  Bible  records  should 
go  east  of  the  Jordan  to  find  the  point  commanding  the  most  extensive 
view  on  all  sides,  he  would  select  Jebel  Osha.  It  is  800  to  1,000  feet 
higher  than  Mount  Nebo  itself.  "  The  hill  over  against  Jericho  "  (Deut. 
xxxiv.  i)  could  just  as  well  be  this  place  as  Jebel  Neba,  and  this  would 
meet  the  conditions  of  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  better 
than  any  other  point.  These  are  claims  or  facts  which  belong  to  this 
mountain,  independent  of  any  claim  of  Jebel  Neba  to  be  the  spot  where 
Moses  stood.1 

It  is  probable  that  Abraham  journeyed  with  his  flocks  and 
herds  from  Damascus  to  the  land  of  Canaan  by  way  of  the 
great  Bashan  plain  and  the  rich  pasture  lands  of  Mount  Gilead 
to  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok,  over  against  the  natural  passage- 
way to  the  plain  (Wady  Farah)  "before  the  city  of  Shechem," 
where  he  pitched  his  tent  and  erected  his  altar  for  the  first 

1  East  of  Jordan,  p.  279. 


The  Trans- Jordanic  Highlands  321 

time  in  the  land.  It  is  certain  that  this  was  Jacob's  route  from 
the  east,  and  it  led  him  directly  to  the  same  place. 

Gilead  was  the  home  of  Jephthah,  the  warrior-judge  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  of  Elijah  the  great  prophet  and  cour- 
ageous reformer  of  Israel.  On  the  border  of  its  coasts  Jesus 
was  baptized,  and  in  that  portion  of  it  then  known  as  Peraea 
some  of  the  most  interesting  events  connected  with  His  public 
ministry  took  place.  (See  Matt.  xix.  i,  13 ;  Mark  x.  i ;  Luke 
xiii.  22  ;  John  x.  40,  etc.) 

There  are  but  few  sites  in  the  uplands  of  Gilead  with  Scrip- 
tural associations,  which  can  be  definitely  located,  but  there 
are  several  cities  of  the  Roman  period  whose  ruins  are  exten- 
sive and  exceptionally  well  preserved.  Among  these  we  note 
the  following : 

Gadara. — This  city,  which  was  once  the  capital  of  a  Ro- 
man province  including  Gergesa  and  other  places  of  note,  is 
three  miles  south  of  the  Yarmuk  and  five  miles  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan. Its  modern  name  is  Um-Keis.  As  already  noted,  the 
"country  of  the  Gadarenes  "  was  the  scene  of  the  healing  of 
the  Demoniac,  recorded  by  three  of  the  Evangelists.  (Matt.  viii. 
28 ;  Mark  v.  i  ;  Luke  viii.  26.)  The  ruins  of  Gadara  are 
over  two  miles  in  circuit,  and  the  rich  ornamental  work  in 
marble,  basalt  and  granite  lying  in  confused  heaps  or  scattered 
everywhere  over  the  ground  indicate  the  existence  of  a 
wealthy  and  magnificent  city.  "The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  remains  of  Gadara,"  says  Tristram,  "  is  a  perfect  paved 
Roman  street,  more  chan  half  a  mile  long,  with  the  ruts  worn 
by  the  chariot-wheels ;  colonnades  on  either  side,  of  which  the 
columns  are  lying  prostrate,  though  many  bases  are  standing ; 
and  massive  crypt-like  cells  in  a  long  row,  apparently  a  market 
or  bazaar.  There  is,  of  course,  a  fine  amphitheatre,  and  a  very 
perfect  theatre  also,  partially  scooped  in  the  side  of  the  rock, 
and  the  remains  of  a  Christian  cathedral.  To  the  east  several 
acres  are  strewn  with  stone  coffins  and  lids,  most  of  them  fairly 
sculptured  with  all  sorts  of  designs,  dragged  out  of  the  caves 


322 


The  Land  of  Israel 


with  which  the  whole  district  is  perforated.  At  every  step 
there  is  either  a  cavern  or  an  artificial  cave."  l 

El  Hamma,  the  place  of  the  famous  hot  springs,  known  as 
Amatha  in  the  Roman  period,  is  situated  in  the  Yarmuk  valley 
nearly  three  miles  from  the  ruins  of  Gadara.  The  remains  of 
vaulted  bath-houses  and  other  buildings  may  be  traced  near 
the  principal  group  of  springs.  In  one  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  115°:  in  another  103°.  The  basin  of  the  largest 
spring  is  180  feet  long  by  ninety  wide.  Dr.  Merrill  found  an- 
other hot  spring  three  miles  up  the  valley  to  the  east  whose 
overflow  made  the  little  plain  in  which  it  was  situated  "a  trop- 
ical paradise."  "I  counted,"  he  says,  "eighteen  tropical 
trees  growing  there,  while  of  the  different  shrubs,  flowers,  and 
plants  I  do  not  know  the  number ;  nor  do  I  know  that  I  ob- 
served all  the  trees.  The  most  striking  feature,  however,  is  a 
grove  of  200  fine  palms,  lifting  their  graceful  heads  above  the 
plain  and  jungle  below.  Such  a  sight  is  not  to  be  seen  else- 
where in  Syria. ' ' 2 

The  land  of  Tob,  in  which  Jephthah  found  a  refuge  (Judg. 
xi.  3),  according  to  the  Talmud,  was  a  district  southeast  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  "  Its  old  title,"  says  Conder,  "  survives  in  the 
modern  name  Taiyibeh,  which  applies  to  a  village  in  this  direc- 
tion, and  which  is  radically  the  same  with  the  Hebrew  signify- 
ing '  goodly '  or  fruitful."  3 

East  of  this  district  are  several  Roman  cities  of  importance, 
as  their  ruins  indicate. 

Abila,  now  Tell  Abil,  is  on  the  highway  to  Damascus,  some 
twelve  miles  east  of  Gadara. 

Capitolias,  eight  or  ten  miles  south  of-  Tell  Abil,  is  piob- 
ably  identical  with  Beit-er  Ras. 

Arbela  has  been  identified  with  a  ruined  site  called  Irbid, 
four  miles  south  of  the  site  of  Capitolias. 

Ramoth-Mizpeh  (Josh.  xiii.   26;  Judg.    xi.    34)  has  not 

1  Holy  Land,  p.  315.  8  East  of  Jordan,  p.  146. 

.    *Heth  and  Moab,  p.  181. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  323 

been  definitely  located.  Conder  thinks  the  most  probable  site 
is  Remtheh,  or  Rimthe,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hajj  road, 
about  fifteen  miles  south  of  Mezarib.  Tristram  suggests  Tib- 
neh,  midway  between  Gadara  and  Jerash,  while  Merrill  favors 
Kulat  er  Rubad. 

Kulat  er  Rubad — "the  watch  tower  of  Gilead  " — is  the 
most  prominent  peak  of  Jebel  Ajlun.  Its  position  corresponds 
with  that  of  Jebel  Osha  south  of  the  Jabbok,  and  the  view  from 
the  ramparts  of  the  ruined  castle,  which  crowns  its  summit  and 
which  has  given  to  it  its  modern  name,  is  probably  as  compre- 
hensive in  its  sweep  as  from  that  famous  outlook  over  the  Jab- 
bok. Dean  Stanley  describes  it  as  the  finest  view  he  ever  saw 
in  this  part  of  the  world.  Says  Dr.  Thomson:  "The  out- 
look from  this  fortress  is,  indeed,  magnificent  and  impressive 
beyond  anything  we  have  seen  '  on  this  side  Jordan  toward  the 
sunrising,' and  one  never  to  be  forgotten."  .  .  .  "In  re- 
ality this  prospect  includes  more  points  of  Biblical  and  histor- 
ical interest  than  any  other  on  the  face  of  the  earth."  l 

"The  view,"  says  Merrill,  "is  more  than  a  picture.  It  is  a 
panorama  of  great  variety,  beauty,  and  magnificence.  .  . 
As  we  look  down  from  Kulat  et  Rubad  upon  this  river  (Jordan) 
and  valley,  the  sea  and  the  lake,  our  eyes  rest  upon  the  scene 
of  a  multitude  of  famous  historical  events  in  which  many  of  the 
great  men  of  antiquity  bore  a  part ;  Chedorlaomer,  Abraham 
and  Lot,  Joshua,  Jacob,  David  and  Solomon,  Gideon  and 
Jephthah,  Absalom,  Joab,  and  Judas  Maccabeus,  Pompey, 
Vespasian,  and  Herod  the  Great,  John  the  Baptist,  and  Christ, 
the  Redeemer  of  the  world."  2 

Mahanaim. — The  site  of  Mahanaim  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily identified.  Several  places  have  been  suggested,  in- 
cluding Jerash,  Khurbet  Suleikhat  in  Wady  Ajlun,  and 
Mahneh.  The  latter  is  favored  by  Robinson,  Tristram,  and 
Oliphant.  Mahneh  is  on  the  edge  of  Wady  Mahneh,  three  or 
four  miles  northeast  of  Kulat  er  Rubad.  The  incidental 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  pp.  578-9.          8  East  of  Jordan,  p.  365. 


324 


The  Land  of  Israel 


notices  of  Mahanaim  in  the  Old  Testament  point  to  a  place 
north  of  the  Jabbok,  near  the  border  of  Manasseh  and  yet 
within  the  territory  of  Gad.  (Gen.  xxxii.  2  ;  Josh.  xiii.  30, 
xxi.  38.) 

At  this  place  the  angels  of  God  met  Jacob,  and  from  this 
event  it  received  its  name.  Here  Ishbosheth  was  crowned,  and 
after  two  years  was  treacherously  put  to  death.  (2  Sam.  ii. 
8-10,  iv.  5,  6.)  It  was  the  refuge  of  David,  also,  when  he 
fled  from  the  face  of  Absalom.  In  the  gate  of  this  city  David 
waited  for  tidings  of  the  battle  between  his  army  and  the  forces 
of  Absalom,  and  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate  he  went  up  with 
the  bitter  cry :  "  O,  my  son  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Ab- 
salom !  would  God  I  had  died  for  thee."  (2  Sam.  xvii.  24, 
xviii.  24-33.) 

Jabesh-Gilead. — A  clue  to  the  identification  of  this  place 
is  furnished  by  a  wady  nearly  opposite  Bethshan,  which  still 
bears  the  name  Yabis,  the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  word  Ja- 
besh.  Dr  Robinson  has  identified  the  city  with  a  ruined  site  on 
the  south  side  of  Wady  Yabis,  called  Ed  Deir,  and  this  identi- 
fication has  been  generally  accepted.  Jabesh-Gilead  is  men- 
tioned for  the  first  time  in  connection  with  the  story  of  the  de- 
fection and  restoration  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Judg.  xxi. 
8-14.)  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Saul  went  to  the  rescue 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh  who  were  in  sore  straits  by  reason 
of  the  cruel  and  insolent  demands  made  upon  them  by  a 
superior  force  of  Ammonites,  who  "  came  up  and  encamped 
against  Jabesh-Gilead."  Gathering  his  army  at  Bezek  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  the  King  of  Israel  made  a 
rapid  night  march,  and,  in  the  morning  watch  attacked  and 
utterly  routed  the  hosts  of  Ammon.  (i  Sam.  xi.  i-u.)  This 
opportune  deliverance  was  gratefully  remembered  by  the  men 
of  Jabesh-Gilead,  who  afterward  rescued  the  dead  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  sons  from  the  dishonor  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected at  Bethshan,  by  making  a  perillous  foray  into  the  midst 
of  their  victorious  foes  under  cover  of  the  night.  In  their  own 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  325 

city  they  gave  to  these  rescued  bodies  an  honorable  burial,  and 
for  this  brave  deed  were  publicly  commended  and  blessed  by 
David,  (i  Sam.  xxxi.  11-13;  2  Sam.  ii.  5.) 

Pella  has  been  identified  with  a  deserted  site,  called  Tabakat 
Fahil,  six  miles  northwest  of  Jabesh-Gilead.  It  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  the  Decapolis.  It  was  the  place  to  which  the  Chris- 
tians fled  from  Jerusalem,  in  obedience  to  the  prophetic  warning 
of  Christ,  just  before  the  siege  of  Titus. 

Peniel,  or  Penuel,  the  place  where  Jacob  wrestled  with  "the 
Angel  and  prevailed,"  was  on  the  bank  of  the  Jabbok  at,  or 
near,  one  of  the  fording-places,  but  its  exact  location  has  not 
been  determined.  It  is  said  that  the  Patriarch  "  passed  over 
Penuel ' '  after  he  had  received  the  blessing  :  hence  the  natural 
inference  that  Penuel  was  a  ridge  or  summit  by  the  side  of  the 
river.  (Gen.  xxxii.)  Afterward  we  read  of  a  city  in  this 
locality  called  Penuel.  Conder  suggests  Jebel  Osha  on  the 
south  side  as  a  probable  location.  Merrill,  after  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  whole  region,  and  its  approaches,  places 
Penuel  at  Tellul  edh-Dhahab.  Here  the  road  from  the  east 
crosses  to  the  south  bank  of  the  Jabbok. 

"As  to  the  site  of  Penuel,"  he  says,  "  there  is  but  one  suitable  point  on 
the  Jabbok,  and  that  is  at  Tellul  edh-Dhahab,  or  Hills  of  Gold.  These 
mounds  are  about  four  miles  east  of  Canaan's  ford,  a  crossing  which  is 
not  far  from  Tell  Deir  Alia  (the  probable  site  of  Succoth).  They  rise 
from  the  middle  of  the  valley  to  a  height  of  about  250  feet.  They  are 
conical  in  shape,  with  abrupt  sides.  The  line  of  the  hills  is  east  and 
west,  the  same  as  that  of  the  valley ;  but  the  stream  winds  so  that  one 
hill  is  on  one  side  of  it,  and  the  other  on  the  other  side.  Whether  ap- 
proached from  the  east  or  west,  or  looked  down  upon  from  the  mountains 
above  them,  they  form  very  striking  objects.  Further  they  are  covered 
with  ruins,  and  on  the  eastern  of  the  two  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
castle.  The  road  from  the  west  follows  up  the  north  side  of  the  river, 
and  crosses  it  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  eastern  mound.  It  immediately 
rises  to  a  small  plateau,  where  are  the  ruins  called  El  Khiuf.  The 
Midianites,  who  troubled  the  Hebrews,  were  desert  people,  and,  in  mak- 
ing their  great  raids  to  the  west,  would  avoid  the  hills  and  follow  the 
most  feasible  route.  Even  after  reaching  Western  Palestine,  they  kept  to 


326 


The  Land  of  Israel 


the  lowlands.  The  only  route  open  to  them  was  that  along  the  valley  of 
the  Jabbok.  Here  they  would  be  sure  of  a  good  road  and  an  abundance 
of  grass  and  water.  A  castle  and  garrison  on  this  route  would  be  very 
necessary,  if  the  western  kingdom  (as  Jeroboam's)  was  to  be  protected 
from  invasions  from  the  eastern  plains."  l 

When  Gideon  passed  from  Succoth  to  Penuel  in  his  pursuit 
of  the  Midianites,  he  was  mocked  by  the  residents  of  the  place, 
as  at  Succoth,  and,  on  his  return  "he  beat  down  the  tower  of 
Penuel,  and  slew  the  men  of  the  city."  (Judg.  viii.  17.) 
Penuel  was  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  Jeroboam  as  an  outpost  of 
defence,  (i  Kings  xii.  25.) 

Jerash  or  Gerasa,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Decap- 
olis,  was  situated  about  twenty  miles  east  of  the  Jordan  on  one 
of  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Jabbok.  Its  site  is  ten  miles 
north  of  the  river  and  its  elevation  is  1,900  feet  above  sea 
level.  Tristram  describes  it  as  "probably  the  most  perfect 
Roman  city  left  above  ground''  "It  is  difficult,"  says  Mer- 
rill, "to  decide  which  is  the  most  attractive  feature  of  Gerash, 
its  forest  of  columns,  its  ruined  buildings,  or  its  beautiful  situ- 
ation. It  lies  on  both  sides  of  a  stream  which  flows  through 
the  city  from  north  to  south,  and  which  is  lined  with  a  thick 
growth  of  oleanders.  These  bushes ^  grow  tall  and  rank,  and, 
when  in  bloom,  they  present  a  blaze  of  beauty  such  as  is  seldom 
beheld,  in  Syria  at  least.  The  main  street,  which  is  paved, 
runs  along  the  west  bank  of  the  stream,  and,  at  a  point  near 
the  middle  of  the  city,  is  crossed  by  another,  running  east  and 
west.  The  first  is  a  mile  or  more  in  length,  and  was  originally 
lined  on  both  sides  with  columns.  It  came  from  the  south, 
and  on  it,  about  half  a  mile  before  reaching  the  city,  stood  a 
triumphal  arch,  about  forty  feet  high,  with  a  small  passage  on 
each  side  of  the  main  entrance,  and  niches  for  statues."3 

The  forum,  the  temples,  theatres,  baths,  massive  walls, 
gateways,  and  clustered  columns,  more  than  200  of  which  are 
yet  standing, — represent  a  great  and  magnificent  city  of  the 

>  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  391,  392.  *  Ibid.,  p.  287. 


The  Trans4ordanic  Highlands          321 

later  Roman  period.     Aside  trom  the  evidence  (urnished  by  its 
remains,  but  little  is  known  of  the  history  of  Jerash. 

Ramoth  Gilead. — There  has  been  much  controversy  over 
the  various  sites  suggested  for  this  ancient  city.  Robinson, 
Tristram,  Gesenius,  Porter  and  others  have  sought  to  establish 
its  identity  with  the  modern  town  of  Es  Salt,  about  two  miles 
southeast  of  Jebel  Osha.  A  serious  objection  to  this  site  is  its 
rugged  environment  which  does  not  accord  with  the  story  of 
the  conflicts  around  it  in  which  chariots  were  extensively  used. 
Says  Major  Conder: — "To  reach  Es  Salt,  where  Ramoth 
Gilead  is  generally  shown,  in  a  chariot,  would  have  been  a  feat 
which  no  ancient  charioteer  is  likely  to  have  attempted,  and 
still  less  any  general  commanding  a  force  of  chariots."  Jelad, 
four  or  five  miles  north  of  Es  Salt,  Reimun  or  Remun,  five  miles 
west  of  Jerash,  and  Jerash,  have  also  been  suggested  as  probable 
sites.  The  latter  seems  to  fulfill  all  the  conditions  of  the  Bibli- 
cal narratives,  and  the  arguments  brought  forward  in  its  favor 
by  Dr.  Merrill  are  deserving  of  careful  consideration. 

We  suggest,  he  says,  that  Ramoth  Gilead  was  not  identical  with  any 
place  bearing  the  name  of  Mizpeh  in  that  region ;  and  further,  that  it  was 
identical  with  the  present  Gerash  (Jerash).  I.  This  place  would  be 
three  days'  journey  from  Samaria  (if  Josephus'  statement  is  to  be  accepted. 
Antiq.  viii.  15,  4).  2.  It  would  be  suitable  for  a  city  of  refuge,  because 
it  was  on  one  of  the  main  routes  which  would  be  kept  open  (according  to 
the  command  in  Deut.  xix.  3).  3.  For  the  same  reason  it  would  be  an 
appropriate  point  at  which  to  command  Eastern  Gilead  and  Bashan.  4. 
Here  chariots  could  be  used,  as  we  learn  they  were  very  extensively,  in 
two  notable  campaigns.  (I  Kings  xxii.  31-35;  2  Kings  ix.  16.)  5. 
This  would  verify  the  ancient  Jewish  testimony  respecting  the  cities  of 
refuge,  that  Ramoth  Gilead  was  opposite  Shechem.  6.  It  would  also 
confirm  the  Jewish  tradition  that  Gerash  is  identical  with  Gilead. » 

The  most  notable  events  in  the  Biblical  history  of  this  place 
were  the  death  of  Ahab,  who  had  joined  forces  with  Jehosha- 
phat  to  recover  the  city  from  the  King  of  Syria  (i  Kings  xxii. 
i  East  of  Jordan,  p.  290. 


328 


The  Land  of  Israel 


34-37) ;  the  battle  between  Hazael  and  the  combined  forces 
of  Ahaziah  of  Judah  and  Joram  in  which  the  city  was  taken, 
but  Joram  was  severely  wounded  (2  Kings  viii.  28,  29,  ix.  14); 
and  the  anointing  and  proclaiming  of  Jehu  as  king  of  Israel. 
(2  Kings  ix.  4-16.)  From  Ramoth  Gilead  Jehu  rode  forth  in 
a  chariot,  to  execute  his  dread  commission  concerning  the  house 
of  Ahab,  and  came  to  Jezreel. 

Suf,  a  village  three  miles  northwest  of  Jerash,  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Major  Conder  as  a  probable  site  for  theMizpahin 
Gilead  where  Jacob  and  Laban  entered  into  covenant  and  erected 
the  "heap  of  witness."  (Gen.  xxxi.  44-52.)  The  home  of 
Jephthah  was  probably  at  the  same  place.  (Judg.  xi.  34.) 
"It  is  very  remarkable  that  a  fine  group  of  rude  stone  monu- 
ments exists  near  Suf,  showing  in  all  probability  that  there  was 
once  a  sacred  centre  here." 

Debir  (Josh.  xiii.  26)  may  be  identical  with  a  village  called 
Dibbin  a  few  miles  southwest  of  Jerash. 

Beth-Gamul  (Jer.  xlviii.  23)  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  Um  el  Jemal,  a  deserted  site  with  extensive  ruins  east  of 
the  Hajj  road,  and  some  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Jerash. 

Es  Salt,  at  the  southern  base  of  Jebel  Osha  (2,7100  feet) 
has  a  population  of  over  6,000.  Until  recently  it  was  the  only 
centre  of  a  settled  population  east  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  Belka  district,  extending  from  the  Jabbok  to  the 
Arnon.  The  hillsides  around  are  covered  with  vineyards, 
which  yield  enormous  crops  of  choice  grapes.  Baedeker  notes 
the  fact  that  the  raisins  of  Es  Salt  are  famous. 

Rabbath  Ammon. — This  ancient  capital  of  the  Ammon- 
ites is  represented  by  a  ruined  city  of  later  date  which  still 
bears  the  name  Amman.  The  ruins  which  now  remain  above 
ground  are  for  the  most  part  the  remains  of  the  magnificent 
Grseco-Roman  city  of  Philadelphia,  but  this  name  only  sur- 
vived the  period  of  the  Roman  occupation. 

Amman  lies  at  the  head  of  a  ravine  in  which  the  Jabbok 
takes  its  rise.  Its  elevation  above  the  sea  is  2,770  feet.  Its 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  329 

position  is  about  eighteen  miles  southeast  of  Jebel  Osha  near 
the  border  of  the  desert.  It  has  been  described  as  "  a  strong 
position,  shut  in  by  high  mountains,  and  shut  in  by  deep  val- 
leys ;  an  abundance  of  good  water  flowing  through  a  narrow 
vale  from  the  southwest  to  the  northeast,  with  a  sufficient  space 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream  for  edifices  of  all  kinds,  public 
and  private ;  while  a  large  isolated  hill,  some  300  feet  high, 
overhangs  it  on  the  northwest  and  north,  affording  on  its 
summit  a  broad  platform  for  a  large  and  almost  unassailable 
citadel."  The  ruins  of  Amman  cover  a  larger  space  than 
those  of  Jerash  but  they  are  not  so  well  preserved.  Traces  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Ammon  may  be  seen  in  the  lower  courses  of 
the  walls  and  in  the  substructures  of  the  citadel.  Ewald  ad- 
vances the  theory  that  Ammon  was  one  of  the  first  cities  built 
after  the  flood,  but  it  is  more  likely  that  it  was  built  by  the  sons 
of  Ammon  who  gave  to  it  the  name  of  their  father.  In  the 
first  reference  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament  (Deut.  iii.  n)  it  is 
called  Rabbath  of  the  children  of  Ammon.  It  was  besieged 
by  Joab  two  years  before  the  lower  city — "  the  city  of  waters  " 
— was  taken,  and  in  front  of  its  walls  Uriah  the  Hittite  was 
slain.  (2  Sam.  xi.  16,  17.)  The  citadel  was  afterward  taken 
by  David.  "And  he  took  their  king's  crown  from  off  his 
head,  the  weight  whereof  was  a  talent  of  gold  with  the  precious 
stones:  and  it  was  set  on  David's  head.  And  he  brought 
forth  the  spoil  of  the  city  in  great  abundance."  (2  Sam.  xii. 
30.)  The  prophetic  denunciations  against  this  city  and  its 
inhabitants  have  been  strikingly  and  most  literally  fulfilled. 
(Jer.  xlix.  i,  2;  Ezek.  xxi.  20,  xxv.  5;  Amos.  i.  14.) 

Jogbehah  (Num.  xxxii.  35)  has  been  identified  with  the 
ruins  of  a  place  called  Jubeihah,  seven  miles  northwest  of 
Amman.  This  place  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Gid- 
eon's pursuit  of  the  Midianites.  (Judg.  viii.  n.) 

Kulat  Zerka,  a  caravan  station  on  the  Hajj  road  about 
fifteen  miles  northeast  of  Amman,  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of 
the  Roman  town  of  Gadda.  It  is  on  the  edge  of  the  desert. 


330 


The  Land  of  Israel 


Traces  of  a  solid  roadway  have  been  discovered  between  Am- 
mon  and  Kulat  Zerka.  "There  can  be  little  doubt,"  says 
Oliphant,  "that  the  force  sent  by  Moses  to  conquer  Bashan 
must  have  passed  by  this  spot  after  the  battle  of  Jahaz."  (Num. 
xxi.  23.) 

Jazer  has  been  identified  by  Dr.  Merrill  and  others  with 
Khurbet  Sar  or  Seir,  one  mile  west  of  Amman.  If  this  identi- 
fication is  correct  the  "land  of  Jazer,"  famous  for  its  cattle 
ranges  is  the  plateau  region  west  of  Rabbath  Ammon.  (Num. 
xxi.  32;  Josh.  xiii.  25  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5,  etc.) 

The  castle  of  Hyrcanus,  a  prince  of  the  Maccabean  line, 
now  called  Arak  el  Emir  stands  on  an  elevated  platform  or 
"  natural  amphitheatre  "  some  eight  or  ten  miles  southwest  of 
Khurbet  Sar.  The  remains  of  this  stronghold  are  said  to  be 
"the  most  remarkable  purely  Jewish  ruins  existing,  and  have 
never  been  altered  or  retouched  by  Roman  or  Saracen.  .  .  . 
Half  a  mile  above  the  castle  is  a  vast  series  of  rock  dwellings, 
impregnable  by  ancient  warfare,  with  chambers,  halls,  stables 
for  one  hundred  horses,  with  rock-hewn  mangers  still  perfect, 
and  inscriptions  in  the  old  Hebrew  character  over  the  rock- 
hewn  portals." 

III.     MOAB. 

The  land  of  Moab,  as  already  indicated,  is  a  broad,  al- 
most treeless,  plateau  elevated  3,000  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  4,300  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea.  This  is  the 
"  Mishor  "  or  table-land  of  Moab  in  distinction  from  the  lowlands 
or  "  plains  of  Moab  "  in  the  Jordan  valley.  From  the  crest  or 
ridge  above  the  Dead  Sea  there  is  a  gradual,  almost  imper- 
ceptible slope  to  the  eastern  desert.  The  Abarim  or  mountain- 
wall,  which  towers  above  the  Dead  Sea,  is  cleft  almost  to  its 
base  by  the  two  deep  ravines  of  the  Callirhoe  and  the  Arnon. 

The  Callirhoe  (Cal-lir'-ho-e),  now  called  Zerka  Main,  was 
known  in  ancient  times  as  "the  valley  of  God."  (Nahaiiel — 
Num.  xxi.  19.)  ^his  awful  chasm,  or  cafion,  is  bordered  by 


The  Trans- Jordan ic  Highlands  331 

cliffs  at  one  point  1,700  feet  in  height.  On  the  south  side  of 
the  stream  a  series  of  basaltic  columns  rise  several  hundred 
feet  and  almost  block  the  gorge,  while  far  below  the  hot  springs 
are  indicated  by  the  thin  cloud  of  vapor  which  rises  to  the  skies. 
In  giving  his  impressions  of  this  dark  valley  Major  Conder 
says: 

It  took  a  full  hour  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  and  the  scene  was 
wonderful  beyond  description.  On  the  south,  black  basalt,  brown  lime- 
stone, gleaming  marl.  On  the  north,  sandstone  cliffs  of  all  colors,  from 
pale  yellow  to  pinkish  purple.  In  the  valley  itself  the  brilliant  green  of 
palm  clumps,  rejoicing  in  the  heat  and  in  the  sandy  soil.  The  streams, 
bursting  from  the  cliffs,  poured  down  in  rivulets  between  banks  of  crusted 
orange  sulphur  deposits.  The  brooks  (which  run  from  ten  springs  in  all) 
vary  from  110°  to  140°  F.  in  temperature,  and  fall  in  little  cascades  amid 
abundant  foliage,  to  join  the  main  course  of  the  stream.  At  one  point  the 
stream  has  bored  through  the  sulphurus  breccia,  and  runs  in  a  tunnel  of 
its  own  making,  issuing  from  this  hot  shaft  about  100  feet  lower,  in  the 
gorge  itself.  Of  all  scenes  in  Syria,  even  after  standing  on  Hermon,  or 
among  the  groves  of  Banias,  or  at  Engedi,  or  among  the  crags  of  the 
Anti- Lebanon,  there  is  none  which  so  dwells  on  my  memory  as  does  this 
awful  gorge,  the  Valley  of  God,  by  Beth-peor,  where,  perhaps,  the  body 
of  Moses  was  hid — the  fair-flowing  stream  which  Herod  sought  below  the 
gloomy  prison  of  John  the  Baptist  at  Machaerus — the  dread  chasm  where 
the  Bedawin  still  offer  sacrifices  to  the  desert  spirits,  and  still  bathe  with 
full  faith  in  the  healing  powers  of  the  spring.1 

The  valley  of  the  Arnon,  (Wady  Mojib),  twelve  miles 
below  the  Callirhoe,  is  the  deepest  furrow  on  this  side  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  While  the  channel  of  the  river  is  not  over  100  feet 
in  width  the  breadth  of  the  valley  from  crest  to  crest  is  more 
than  two  miles.  Its  maximum  depth  is  not  less  than  2,000  feet. 
The  sides  of  this  great  trench,  except  where  they  fall  away  in 
precipitous  cliffs,  are  clothed  with  rich  verdure.  The  Arnon  is 
the  largest  stream  that  enters  the  Dead  Sea  on  tlr""  side  and  its 
mouth  is  just  half-way  down  the  shore. 

At  Aroer,  about  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  Arson 
1  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  150,  151. 


332 


The  Land  of  Israel 


proper  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  three  wadies,  one  coming 
from  the  east  called  Saideh,  and  two  from  the  south;  "these 
two  latter  first  join  together  and  then  unite  with  the  eastern 
branch."  The  name  Lejjun  or  Makherus  applies  to  the  cen- 
tral, and  Balus  to  the  smaller  branch.1 

The  itinerary  of  the  Israelites  indicates  that  they  came  up 
from  the  wilderness  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  territory  of  Moab, 
and  hence  must  have  crossed  the  Arnon  near  its  head-waters. 

The  highest  mountain  of  the  range  of  Moab  is  Jebel  At- 
tarus  on  the  south  side  of  the  Callirhoe.  The  outlook  from 
this  mountain  rivals  that  from  Jebel  Osha.  A  heap  of  ruins  on 
its  summit  probably  represents  the  remains  of  an  ancient  sanctu- 
ary of  Baal  or  Chemosh.  An  ancient  town,  whose  ruins  cover 
a  considerable  space,  called  Kureiyat,  a  short  distance  south 
of  Jebel  Attarus,  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  place 
called  Kirjath-huzoth,  to  which  Balak  brought  Balaam  on  his 
arrival  in  the  land  of  Moab.  (Num.  xxii.  39.) 

Bamoth  Baal,  the  high  place  on  which  the  seven  altars 
were  erected  the  next  day,  seems  to  have  been  some  elevation 
on  the  north  side  of  the  ravine  in  the  direction  of  the  camp  of 
Israel.  Its  position  has  not  been  definitely  located. 

Mount  Pisgah,  or  the  "top  of  Pisgah,"  over  against  Jeri- 
cho, was  the  next  station  to  which  Balaam  was  taken,  and  here, 
as  before,  seven  altars  were  erected.  (Num.  xxiii.  14.) 

"The  summit  of  Jebel  Neba,  which  has  been  generally  ac- 
cepted as  the  mountain  of  Nebo,  is  not  300  feet  higher  than  the 
plain  of  the  Belka,  yet  its  position  near  the  edge  of  the  tre- 
mendous descent  to  the  plain  of  Abel  Shittim  adds  1,300  feet 
more  to  its  height,  and  thus,  in  reality,  it  presents  a  noble  stand- 
point 4,000  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea  from  which  to  survey  the 
Promised  Land  beyond  Jordan  westward."2  A  projecting 
head-land,  a  half-mile  or  more  to  the  west,  known  as  Siaghah 
or  Jebel  Siaghah  offers  another  view-point,  which  some  ex- 
plorers regarded  as  the  top  of  Pisgah,  but  the  outlook,  except 

1  Quarterly  P.  E.  F.,  '95,  p.  215.      *  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  65 1. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  333 

the  downward  look  into  the  Jordan  valley,  is  not  more  com- 
prehensive than  that  from  the  top  of  Jebel  Neba. 

With  respect  to  the  different  names  used  in  connection  with 
this  view-point  of  Balaam  and  of  Moses,  Dr.  Thomson  concludes, 
as  the  result  of  a  careful  study  of  the  Bedawin  designations  and 
identifications,  "that  Nebo  is  'the  mountain '  of  which  Pisgah 
is  'the  top,'  ras,  or  headland;  and  Siaghah  is  probably  only 
another  and  an  Arabic  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew  and  the 
English  Pisgah."1 

"  After  testing  repeatedly  every  view  in  the  neighborhood,"  says  Dr. 
Tristram,  "  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  that  there  is  none  which  equals  in  ex- 
tent that  from  Nebo — i.  <?.,  from  the  flat  ridge  which  rises  slightly  about 
half  a  mile  behind  the  ruined  city  (Nebbeh),  and  which  I  take  to  be  the 
true  field  of  Zophim,  the  top  of  Pisgah.  On  these  brows  overlooking  the 
mouth  of  the  Jordan,  over  against  Jericho,  every  condition  is  met  for 
the  Pisgah  both  of  Balaam  and  of  Moses."  Here  "  the  Lord  showed 
Moses  all  the  land  of  Gilead  unto  Dan,  and  all  Naphtali  and  the  land 
of  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  and  all  the  land  of  Judah,  unto  the  utmost 
sea,  and  the  south,  and  the  plain  of  the  valley  of  Jericho,  the  city  of  palm- 
trees  unto  Zoar."  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1-3.)  "  In  this  account,"  says  Dr. 
Henderson,  "  if  we  only  read  toward  instead  of  unto  as  applied  to  Dan 
and  the  Western  Sea,  the  accuracy  of  the  description  is  perfect."9 

Beth-peor,  the  third  station  of  Balaam,  has  been  located 
by  the  Survey  party  at  the  western  edge  of  a  ridge  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Callirhoe.  Here  the  plain  of  Moab  (Abel  Shittim) 
on  which  Israel  was  encamped,  can  be  seen  throughout  its  ex- 
tent. (Num.  xxiv.  2.)  The  burial-place  of  Moses  was  "in 
a  valley  in  the  land  of  Moab,  over  against  Beth-peor,  but  no 
man  knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day."  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
6.)  Menhirs,  dolmens,  stone  circles,  and  the  remains  of  ancient 
shrines  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  worship  of  Baal  and 
Chemosh,  have  been  found  on  many  of  the  high  places  of 
Moab. 

The  sites  of  several  of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  inheritance 

1  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  654.  3  Hist  Geog.,  p.  73. 


334: 


The  Land  of  Israel 


of  Reuben  have  been  identified  by  the  names  which  they  bore 
in  the  time  of  Moses. 

Heshbon,  now  Hesban,  was  built  on  a  commanding  emi- 
nence some  200  feet  above  the  plain.  Its  position  is  about  fif- 
teen miles  east  of  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Jewish, 
Roman,  and  Saracenic  ruins  are  mingled  together  on  the  crest 
of  the  hill,  and  eastward  of  the  city  are  the  remains  of  a  large 
reservoir  suggestive  of  "  the  fish  pools  in  Heshbon,  by  the  gate 
of  Bath-rabbim."  (Cant.  vii.  4.) 

Heshbon  was  the  capital  of  the  Amorite  king,  Sihon,  who  had 
taken  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Moabites.  (Num.  xxi.  26.) 
It  was  rebuilt  by  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  but  afterward  became  a 
city  of  Gad  and  was  assigned  to  the  Levites.  (Num.  xxxii. 
37 ;  Josh.  xxi.  39.)  At  a  later  period  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Moabites  and  was  included  in  the  denunciations  of 
the  prophets  against  Moab.  (Isa.  xv.  4;  Jer.  xlviii.  34, 
45.)  In  the  Maccabean  period  Heshbon  and  all  the  cities  in 
its  vicinity  were  recovered  from  the  Moabites. 

Elealah,  frequently  mentioned  in  connection  with  Heshbon, 
is  now  known  as  El  'Al.  Its  ruins  are  scattered  over  the  sur- 
face of  a  mound  whose  elevation  is  nearly  3,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  This  site  is  less  than  two  miles  from  Heshbon  in  a 
northeast  direction. 

Sibmah,  renowned  for  its  choice  vineyards,  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Sumieh,  which  lies  about  the  same  distance  to  the  north- 
west. The  remains  of  wine-presses  hewn  out  of  the  rock  have 
been  found  at  the  base  of  this  mound.  (See  Isa.  xvi.  9,  10.) 

Medeba  is  represented  by  the  modern  village  of  Madeba, 
which  lies  about  six  miles  south  of  Heshbon,  along  the  line  of 
the  old  highway  to  southern  Moab.  "The  name  has  re- 
mained identically  the  same,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "since  the 
age  of  Moses,  a  period  of  about  3,500  years,  and  the  first  men- 
tion of  it,  in  Numbers  xxi.  30,  implies  that  it  was  a  well-known 
place  before  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  Lawgiver."  *  The  ruins 
*  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  638. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  335 

of  ancient  walls,  temples,  a  handsome  gateway,  churches,  ba- 
silicas, Mosaics ;  and  three  large  pools,  one  of  which  measures 
135  yards  in  length  by  103  yards  in  width,  attest  the  impor- 
tance of  the  place  in  Roman  and  early  Christian  times.  A 
great  battle  between  the  army  of  Joab  and  the  combined  forces 
of  Syria  and  Ammon,  resulting  in  victory  to  the  Israelites,  was 
fought  in  the  plain  before  Medeba.  (i  Chron.  xix.  6-15.) 
Medeba  is  included  among  the  cities  of  Moab  in  the  time  of 
Isaiah  (xv.  2). 

The  discovery  of  a  large  Mosaic  map  of  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  presumably  of  the  fifth  century,  on  the  floor  or  pave- 
ment of  an  old  church  in  December,  1896,  has  brought  Medeba 
into  a  place  of  special  prominence.  Photographs  of  the  com- 
plete map  on  ten  separate  sheets  have  been  secured,  and  it  will 
soon  be  published  as  a  whole  in  reduced  form.  "Upon  this 
map  the  tribes  of  Israel  are  marked,  each  tribe  with  its  boun- 
dary and  its  chief  towns  ;  Biblical  or  Gospel  events  are  alluded 
to  by  a  word — the  greater  part  of  Jacob's  prophecy  is  noted 
thereon,  with  some  variations  from  the  received  text.  (Gen. 
xlix.  25  ;  Deut.  xxxiii.)  The  administrative  districts  into 
which  the  country  was  divided  in  the  fifth  century  are  there 
also,  and  some  hitherto  unknown  names  of  towns.  Each  town 
or  holy  place  is  represented  by  a  building  of  some  kind  :  Jeru- 
salem, Nablus  and  Gaza  are  encircled  by  walls ;  one  can  rec- 
ognize the  chief  gates,  and  the  public  buildings  show  the  out- 
ward appearance  of  these  cities."  1 

The  full  topographical  value  of  this  mosaic  has  not  yet  been 
ascertained,  but  it  will  doubtless  aid  in  determining  some 
points  of  uncertain  identity. 

At  Mashetta  on  the  eastward  side  of  the  Hajj  road,  some 
fifteen  miles  northeast  of  Medeba,  there  is  a  wonderful  struc- 
ture which  has  puzzled  the  antiquarians  and  excited  the  admi- 
ration of  all  travellers  in  this  desert  region.  It  is  an  unfinished 
building  500  feet  square  flanked  by  twenty-five  towers.  Its 
1  Quarterly  P.  E.  F.  '97,  p.  215. 


336 


The  Land  of  Israel 


walls  and  towers  which  rise  to  the  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet,  are  covered  with  sculptures,  zigzag  moulding,  stone-tra- 
cery, "  large  bosses  in  the  centre  of  triangular  segments"  and 
"  fret-work  within  and  about  these  sections  of  great  beauty  and 
variety  of  design — vines,  fruit,  birds,  animals,  and  even  men." 
It  can  be  truly  said  of  the  facade,  says  Dr.  Thomson,  that  it 
is  "  adorned  with  a  richness  and  magnificence  unparalleled,  and 
scarcely  exceeded  in  the  architecture  of  any  age  or  nation."  l 
This  palatial  building  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  the  desert.  Its 
origin,  history  and  purpose  are  alike  unknown.  For  fuller  de- 
scriptions and  a  discussion  of  the  suppositions  concerning  it  see 
Tristram's  "Land  of  Moab,"  Merrill's  "East  of  the  Jordan  " 
and  Thomson's  "  Land  and  Book." 

Baal-Meon,  or  Beth-Meon  is  represented  by  Tell  Ma'in, 
four  miles  southwest  of  Madeba.  It  is  mentioned  among  the 
cities  of  Reuben.  (Num.  xxxii.  38  ;  i  Chron.  v.  8.) 

Dibon,  now  known  as  Dhiban,  is  on  the  highway  to  the 
south  about  three  miles  north  of  the  Arnon.  Its  ruins  are  ex- 
tensive, covering  the  slopes  of  two  adjacent  hills.  Taken  from 
Sihon  it  was  rebuilt  by  Gad,  and,  at  a  later  period,  was  held 
by  the  Moabites.  (Num.  xxi.  30,  xxxiii.  34 ;  Isa.  xv.  2.) 

Here  the  famous  Moabite  Stone  was  found  by  Dr.  Klein  in 
1868.  This  monument,  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  and  valuable  which  modern  research  has 
brought  to  light.  It  is  a  slab  of  basalt  three  and  one-half  feet 
in  length  by  two  feet  in  breadth.  It  was  shattered  into  frag- 
ments while  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  but  has  been  so  care- 
fully restored  that  only  one-seventh  part  of  the  inscription, 
originally  of  thirty-four  lines,  is  lacking.  The  first  part  of  the 
inscription  gives  an  account  of  the  oppression  of  Moab  by  Omri, 
king  of  Israel,  and  of  the  subsequent  deliverance  accomplished 
by  the  author  of  the  tablet,  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  during  the  reign 
of  Omri's  son  or  successor.  The  date  of  this  inscription  is 
about  9008.  c.  "The  characters,"  says  Dr.  Neubaur,  "in 
i  The  Land  and  the  Book,  p.  631. 


The  Trans-Jordanic  Highlands  337 

which  the  inscription  is  written  are  Phoenician,  and  form  a  link 
between  those  of  the  Baal  Lebanon  inscription  (of  the  tenth 
century  B.  c.)  and  those  of  the  Siloam  text."  On  this  tablet 
twenty-two  letters  corresponding  to  the  letters  of  the  early 
Hebrew  alphabet  have  been  found.  We  have  in  this  monu- 
ment the  same  names  that  are  given  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
evidence  of  the  same  relationship  between  Moab  and  Israel, 
and  a  striking  confirmation  of  the  historical  statement  concern- 
ing Mesha  in  the  second  Book  of  the  Kings  (iii.  4,  5).  "And 
Mesha,  king  of  Moab  was  a  sheepmaster,  and  rendered  unto 
the  king  of  Israel  100,000  lambs,  and  100,000  rams,  with  the 
wool.  But  it  came  to  pass,  when  Ahab  was  dead,  that  the 
king  of  Moab  rebelled  against  the  king  of  Israel." 

Aroer,  the  border  town  of  the  heritage  of  Reuben,  and  "the 
Beersheba  of  the  East,"  lies  on  the  northern  brink  of  the  great 
trench  of  the  Arnon.  (Deut.  ii.  36.)  Its  modern  name  is 
Ar'air.  Aroer  shared  in  the  changes  and  vicissitudes  of  the  ad- 
jacent towns  of  Reuben  until  Moab  ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate 
nationality. 

The  ruins  of  a  bridge  and  traces  of  an  old  road  across  the 
ravine  can  still  be  seen  at  this  point. 

There  are  scores  of  ruined  sites  on  the  plateau  south  of  the 
Arnon,  but  there  are  very  few  of  them  that  have  been  satisfac- 
torily identified. 

The  ancient  capital  of  the  land,  "  Kir  of  Moab,"  or  Rabbath 
Moab,  lies  about  eight  miles  south  of  the  Arnon.  (Num.  xxi. 

28.) 

Kir  of  Moab,  now  Kerak  (Isa.  xv.  i),  is  perched  on  an 
isolated  hill  which  is  almost  cut  off  from  the  plateau  by  deep 
ravines,  one  of  which  is  Wady  Kerak.  It  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  impregnable  strongholds  of  the  land  of  Moab. 

When  besieged  at  this  place  by  the  confederated  forces 
of  Israel  and  Edom,  King  Mesha  vainly  attempted  to  break 
through  the  opposing  lines  of  the  Edomites.  "Then  he  took 
his  eldest  son  that  should  have  reigned  in  his  stead,  and  offered 


338  The  Land  of  Israel 

him  for  a  burnt-offering  upon  the  wall."  (2  Kings  iii.  26,  27.) 
This  deed  of  horror  ended  the  siege,  and  the  Israelites  returned 
to  their  own  land.  Kerak  is  said  to  be  the  only  one  of  the  an- 
cient cities  of  Moab  which  is  inhabited.  Its  population  has 
been  recently  estimated  at  10,000. 

The  brook  or  valley  of  Zered  is  probably  represented  by  the 
Wady  El  Ahsy — a  part  of  which  is  called  Wady  Siddeh — the 
boundary  between  Moab  and  Edom.  "This  wady,"  says  Dr. 
Robinson,  "  forms  a  natural  division  between  the  country  on 
the  north  and  south.  Taking  its  rise  near  the  castle  El  Ahsy 
on  the  route  of  the  Syrian  Hajj,  upon  the  high  eastern  desert, 
it  breaks  down  through  the  whole  chain  of  mountains  to  near 
the  southeast  corner  of  the  Dead  Sea,  forming,  for  a  part  of  the 
way,  a  deep  chasm." 

In  the  narrative  of  the  Journeyings  of  Israel  toward  the  Jor- 
dan it  is  plainly  intimated  that  the  route  was  along  the  border 
or  coasts  of  Edom  and  Moab.  Hence  the  place  of  crossing  on 
this  memorable  occasion  must  have  been  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  valley  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Hajj  road.  Here 
while  resting  in  camp  (Num.  xxi.  12)  the  Israelites  received 
the  stirring  command  : — "  Rise  up  and  get  you  over  the  brook 
of  Zered."  (Deut.  ii.  13.)  This  passage,  more  significant  in 
its  results  for  the  world  than  Caesar's  crossing  of  the  Rubicon, 
marked  the  limit  of  the  thirty-eight  years  of  wilderness  journey- 
ings,  and  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  for  the  disciplined  hosts 
which  followed  Moses  and  Joshua.  (Deut.  ii.  14.)  From  this 
hour  their  faces  were  set  steadfastly  "unto  the  land  of  their 
possession,  which  the  Lord  gave  unto  them." 


Equivalents  of  Arabic  Words 


Ain=  Fountain  (PI  Ayun). 

Arak=  Cliff. 

Ballut=Oak. 

Beit  (Heb.  Beth)= House. 

Bir  (Heb.  Beer)=Well. 

Birket=Pool. 

Buka'a=  Valley. 

Burj=Tower. 

Deir=  Convent. 

Haram=  Sacred  Inclosure. 

Jebel=  Mountain. 

Jisr=  Bridge. 

Kefr=  Village. 

Khan=Inn  or  Caravansary. 

Kulat=  Castle 


Kurn=  Horn. 

Kusr=  Tower. 

Mar=  Saint. 

Mejdel=Watchtower. 

Merj= Meadow  or  Plain. 

Mugbarah=Cave. 

Nahr=  River. 

Neby=  Prophet 

Ras=Head,  Promontory. 

Sahel=  Plain. 

Sheikh= Chief. 

Tell=  Mound. 

Tor=  Isolated  Mountain. 

Wady=  Valley  or  Watercourse. 

Wely=Tomb  of  a  noted  Saint. 


339 


Index 


Abana  (Barada),  289,  291-292. 

Abarim,  330. 

Abdon  (Abdeh),  78. 

Abel  -  beth       Maachah       (Abel 

Maim),  254. 
Abel  Meholah  (Ain  el  Helweh), 

274. 
Abel   Shittim   (Tell    Kefrein)— 

Plain  of  Moab,  280. 
Abila  (Suk  Wady  Barada),  290. 
Abila  (Tell  Abil),  322. 
Abilene,  290. 
Abraham,  Oak  of,  232. 
Abraham,  Well  of,  Beersheba, 

239- 

Absalom,  Tomb  of,  199. 
Abu  Ghosh.     See  Kirjath,  226. 
Accho  (Akka).     See  Acre. 
Aceldama  (Potter's  Field),  199. 
Achor,  Valley  of   (Wady  Kelt), 

161. 

Achshaph  (El  Yasif),  77. 
Achzib  (Es  Zibj,  77. 
Acra,    Division   of    Jerusalem, 

173- 

Acre  (Accho),  76. 
Acre,  Plain  of,  75. 
Adam,  Town  in  Jordan  Valiey, 

274. 

Admah,  278. 
Adonis  River,  66. 
Adoraim  (Dura),  236. 
Adullam  (Aid-el-ma),  102. 
Adullam, Traditional  site  of,  230. 
JEnon  (Ainun),  152. 
Afranj  Wady,  103. 


Ahsy,  El,  Castle  of,  338. 

Ahsy,  Wady  (Zered),  338. 

Ai-Hai  (Haiyan),  164. 

Aijalon-Ajalon. 

Ain  Duk,  161. 

Ain  Feshkhah  (Spring  of  P5s- 
gah),  279. 

Ain  el  Fijeh,  290. 

Ain  Gadis-Ain  Kadeis.  SeeKad- 
ish  Barnea. 

Ain  Hajla.     See  Beth  Hogla. 

Ain  Helweh.  See  Abel  Me- 
holah. 

Ain  Jalud  (Well  of  Harod),  127. 

Ain  Muweileh.  See  Beer-lahai- 
roi. 

Ain  Shems.     See  Bethshemesh. 

Ain  Tabighah  (Fountain  of  Ca- 
pernaum), 270. 

Ain  Zehaltah,  108. 

Ajalon  (Yalo),  99. 

Ajalon  Valley  (Merj-Ibn-Omier,, 
98. 

Ajlun,  319. 

Ajlun,  Mount,  318. 

Ajlun  Wady,  319. 

Akabah,  Gulf  of,  286. 

Aksa,  El,  Mosque  of,  186. 

Alemeth  (Almit),  169. 

Amalek,  Territory  of,  237. 

Amatha  (El  Hamma),  322. 

Amman.  See  Rabbath  Ammon. 

Ammonites,  Country  of,  319. 

Amorites,  33. 

Amorites,  Mountain  of  the,  33. 

Amwas(Emmaus), 


340 


Index 


34' 


Anathoth  ('Anata),  167. 
Ananiah  (Beit  Hanina),  169. 
Anti-Lebanon,  Mountains  of,  17, 

289. 

Antipatris  (Ras  el  Ain),  86. 
Antonia,  Towerof,  187. 
Aphek,  (Fik),  304. 
Apollonia  (Arsuf),  87. 
Aqueducts  of  Jerusalem,  215. 
Ar,  of  Moab-Rabbath  Moab. 
Arab  (Er  Rabiyeh),  236. 
Arabah  Wady,  286. 
Arad  (Tel  Arad),  241. 
Arah  Wady,  145. 
Arak-el  Emir,  330. 
Aram-Syria. 
Arbela  (Irbid),  322. 
Archi  (Ain  Arik),  38,  169. 
Arethusa,  291. 

Argob.     See  Lejah. 

Arish  Wady  El,  9,  249. 

Armenian  Quarter — Jerusalem, 
176. 

Armenian  Convent — Jerusalem, 
178. 

Arnon  River  (Wady  Mojib),  331. 

Aroer  of  Judah  (Ar'air),  242. 

Arka-Tell,  68. 

Arkites,  31. 

Arsuf-Apollonia. 

Arub  Wady,  215. 

Arumah  (El  Orma),  155. 

Ascension,  Church  of,  205. 

Ascension,  Place  of,  205. 

Ashdod  (Eshdud),  Azotus,  90. 

Asher,  Territory  of,  40,  75. 

Ashtaroth  (Tell  Ashtarah,)  304. 

Askelon  (Askulan),  91. 

Ataroth  Adar  (Ed  Darieh),  38. 

Athlit,  Plain  of,  79. 

Athlit,  Town  of,  79. 


Aujeh  River  (Mejarkon),  81. 

Auranitis,  42. 

Awaj  (Pharpar),  292. 

Awertah.  See  Gibeah  Phinehas. 

Aven,  Plain  of,  253. 

Avim,  35. 

Azekah  (Tell  Zakariya  ?),  103. 

Azur  Tell-Baal  Hazor. 

Azzah.     See  Gaza. 

Baalbek  (Heliopolis),  250-251. 

Baal  Gad,  252. 

Baal  Hazor  (Tell  Azur)  16,  142. 

Baal  Hermon,  7,  297. 

Baal  Meon  (Ma'ain),  336. 

Baal  Poer.     See  Beth  Peor. 

Baal  Tamar  ('Attara),  169. 

Bamoth  Baal,  332. 

Banias  (Csesarea  Philippi),  258- 

259- 

Banias,  Fountain  of,  258. 
Barada.     See  Abana. 
Bashan,  42,  303. 
Bashan,  Cattle  of,  310. 
Bashan,  Oaks  of,  310. 
Bashan,  Giant  Cities  of,  314. 
Batanaea,  42,  311. 
Bathaniyeh,  311. 
Batihah,  Plain  of,  265,  270. 
Beer-lahai-roi    (Hagar's   Well) 

248. 

Beeroth  (Bireh),  165. 
Beersheba,  239. 
Beirut,  68. 
Beit  Nuba,  99. 

Beit  Jibrin  (Eleutheropolis),  103. 
Belata,  152. 
Belfort,  Castle  of,  109. 
Belka,  318. 

Belus  River  (NahrNaman),  75. 
Beniah,  Feat  of,  25. 
Benjamin,  Territory  of,  37. 


342 


Index 


Benjamin,  Mountains  of,  158. 

Berj  Beitin,  163. 

Beth  Anath  (Anita),  115. 

Bethabara,  283. 

Bethany  (El  Azeriyeh),  203. 

Beth  Dagon  (Beit  Dejan),  87. 

Bethel  (Beitin),  162. 

Beth  Emek  (Amkah),  78. 

Bether  (Bittir),  231. 

Bethesda,  Pool  of,  181. 

Beth  Gamul  (Urn  el  Jemal),  328. 

Beth-Haccerem,  230. 

Beth-Haran  (Tell  er  Ramah),  281. 

Beth  Hogla  (Ain  Hajlah),  278. 

Beth  Horon,  Upper,  167. 

Beth  Horon,  Lower,  167. 

Beth-Jesimoth,  280,  281. 

Bethlehem  of  Judah  (Beit  Lahm), 

228. 

Bethlehem  of  Zebulun,  119. 
Beth  Meon.     See  Baal  Meon. 
Beth-Nimrah  (Tell  Nimrim),  281. 
Beth  Peor,  331,  333. 
Bethphage,  205. 
Bethsaida  of    Galilee   (Ain  Tabi- 

ghah),  270. 
Bethsaida  Julias,  270. 
Bethshan  (Beisan)-Scythopolis,  128. 
Bethshan,  Plain  of,  273. 
Beth  Shemesh  (Ain  Shems),  100. 
Beth  Shemesh  (K'h  Shema),  115. 
Beth  Shittah  (Shutta),  128. 
Beth  Tappuah  (Tuffuh),  236. 
Beth  Zur  (Beit  Sur),  236. 
Betogabra.     See  Beit  Jibrin. 
Bezek  (Ibsik),  154,  324. 
Bezetha — Division     of   Jerusalem, 

173- 

Bible,  Lands  of  the,  I. 
Bir  Eyub,  214. 
Birket  Israil,  181. 


Birket  Mamilla,  214. 

Birket  es  Sultan,  214. 

Blanchegarde,  103. 

Bostrenus  River  (Awaly),  67,  70. 

Bozrah  (Buzrah),  312. 

Bridge  of  Jacob's  Daughters,  261. 

Bsherreh,  108. 

Buka'a  (Lebanon  Valley),  19,  250. 

Buttauf,  Plain  of  (El  Buttauf),  112. 

Byar  Wady,  215. 

Cabul  (Kabul),  78. 

Csesarea,  82. 

Csesarea  Philippi.     See  Banias. 

Callirhoe  (Zerka  Main),  330. 

Calvary,  Place  of,  178,  200. 

Cana  (Kefr  Kenna),  118. 

Cana  (Kh  Kana),  119. 

Canaan,  30. 

Canaan,  Early  history  of,  50. 

Canaan — As  a  Babylonian  Provincet 

5°- 
Canaan — As  an  Egyptian  Province, 

52- 

Canaanites,  28. 
Capernaum  (Khan  Minyeh),  267- 

270. 
Capernaum,  Ministries  of  Christ  in, 

269. 

Capitolias  (Beit  er  Ras),  322. 
Caravan  Routes,  44. 
Caravansary.     See  Khan. 
Carmel,  Mount,  134. 
Carmel  (Kurmul),  234. 
Cedron-Kedron-Kidron. 
Cedars  of  Lebanon,  51,  108. 
Chariots  in  Palestine,  46. 
Chedorlaomer,  Route  of,  235,  279. 
Chesalon  (Kesla),  169. 
Chinnereth-Sea  of  Galilee,  265. 
Chisloth  Tabor  (Iksal),  126. 


Index 


343 


Ciccar  (Circuit)  of  the  Jordan,  279. 

Citadel,  Jerusalem  (Al  Kala),  176. 

Climate,  Variations  in,  23. 

Coele  Syria  (Lebanon  Valley),  19. 

Coast  Route,  44. 

Crocodile  River  (Nahr  ez  Zerka), 

80. 

Crusades,  Period  of,  56. 
Crusades,  Monuments  of,  56. 

Damascus,  291. 

"          Plain  of  (Ghutah),  291. 
"          Merj  of,  292. 
"          Gate  (Jerusalem),  175. 
Dan,  Territory  of,  38. 
Dan,  Camp  of,  101. 
Dan  (Tell  el  Kady),  257. 
Dan,  Oak  at,  257. 
Data    for  study  of  Sacred   Geog- 
raphy, 2. 

Damieh  Ford,  283. 
David,  Dominion  of,  II. 

"      Kingdom  of,  II. 

"      City  of,  172. 

"      Tomb  of,  199. 

"      Tower  of,  177. 
Dead  River  (Nahr  Mufjir),  81. 
Dead  Sea  (Salt  Sea),  286-288. 

"        "    Basin,  286. 
Debir  (El  Dhoheriyeh),  236. 
Debir  (Dibbin),  328. 
Debir  (Ed  Debr),  169. 
Decapolis,  District  of,  42. 
Deir  Aban  (Ebenezer),  227. 
Deir  Ballut,  Wady,  145. 
Deir  Warda,  100. 
Derdarah,  tributary  of  the  Jordan, 

255- 
Dibon  (Dhiban),  336. 

"      Moabite  Stone  of,  336. 
Dera  (Dra'a),  308. 


Dilbeh,  236. 

Dome  of  the  Rock,  184. 

Dog  River  (Lycus),  44,  66. 

Dolmens,  333. 

Dor  or  Dora  (Tanturah),  79. 

Dothan  (Tell  Dothan),  143,  154. 

"       Plain  of,  143. 
Double  Gate — Huldah — Jerusalem, 

190-191. 

Druze  Jebel  Ed,  310. 
East  Mountain  (Jebel  esh  Shurky), 

289. 

Ebal,  Mount,  139. 
Ebenezer  (Deir  Aban),  227. 
Ed-Debr,  169. 

Edrei  (Tell  Khuraibeh),  114. 
Edrei  (Edhra),  Zora,  308. 
Ehden,  Fountain  of,  108. 
Eglon  (Ajlan),  95. 
Ekron  (Akir),  89. 
El  Aksa,  Mosque  of,  187. 
Elah,  Valley  of,  (Wady  es  Sunt), 

101. 

Elealeh  (El'Al),  334. 
Eleazar,  Tomb  of,  154. 
Eleph  (Lifta),  169. 
Eleutherus     River     (Nahr     el 

Kebir),  66. 

Eleutheropolis  (Beit  Jibrin),  103. 
El  Hamma  (Amatha),  322. 
Elijah,   Place   of    Translation    of; 

283. 

El  Kuleib,  310. 
El  Lisan,  287. 
El  Mahrakah,  135. 
El  Meshed.     See  Gath  Hepher. 
El  Meshrifeh,  242. 
El  Mezar,  129. 

Emmaus  (Amwas),  Nicopolis,  99. 
Emmaus  (Khamasa),  227. 
Engannim  (Jenin),  125. 


344 


Index 


Engedi  (Hazezon-tamar) — Ain  Jidy, 

234- 

En  Hazor  (Ain  Hazzur),  115. 
En  Mishphat-Kadesh  Barnea. 
En  Nukra  (Hollow  Hearth),  305. 
En  Rogel  (Fountain  of  the  Virgin), 

207. 

Ephraim,  Mount,  1 6,  134. 
"         Wood  of,  319. 
"         City  of  (Ophrah),  162. 
"         Territory  of,  38. 
Ephratah  or  Ephrath- Bethlehem. 
Er  Ramah,  16. 
Esdraelon,  Plain  of,  120. 

Gateways  of,  121. 
Esek,  Springs  of,  96. 
Eshcol,  Valley  of,  248. 
Eshtaol  (Eshua),  100. 
Es  Seer,  Plain  of,  243. 
Etam,  Rock  of  (Beit  Atab),  101. 
Etham,  or  Etam  in  Valley  of  Urtas, 

231. 

EtTell(Hai?),  165. 
Exploration  Societies,  2. 

Farah  Wady,  144,  274,  320. 

Fauna  of  Palestine,  25. 

Ferata- Ophrah. 

Fekreh  (Feqreh)  Wady,  243. 

Fik  (Aphek),  304. 

Fik  Wady,  272,  305. 

Flora  of  Palestine,  24,  26. 

Fountain  Gate  (Jerusalem),  220. 

Frank  Mountain,  230. 

Fuleh,  127. 

Gad,  Territory  of,  40. 
Gadara  (Um  Keis),  321. 
Gadarenes,  Country  of,  271. 
Gadda.   See  Kulat  Zcrka. 
Gadis  Ain.     See  Kadesh  Barnea. 


Gadis  Wady,  244-245. 

Galem  (Beit  Jala),  231. 

Galeed-Gilead. 

Galilee,  Province  of,  41,  ill. 

"        Upper,  115. 

"         Lower,  115. 

"        Sea  of,  262-273. 

"        Basin  of,  262. 

"        Mountains  of,  in. 
Gamala  (Kulat  en  Husn),  272. 
Gath  (Tell  es  Safi  ?),  90,  102. 
Gath  Hepher  (El  Meshed),  1 19. 
Gaulanitis  (Jaulan),  42. 
Gaza  (Guzzeh),  91. 
Geba  (Jeba),  165. 
Gebal  (Jebail),  68. 
Gederah  (Jedireh),  169. 
Gehenna  (Tophet),  206. 
Gennesaret,  Lake  of.     See  Galilee. 

"  Plain  of,  264. 

Geology  of  Palestine,  20,  27. 
Gerar  (Um  el  Jerar),  95. 
Gerar,  Kingdom  of,  29. 
Gerasa  (Jerash),  326. 
Gergesa  (Khersa),  265,  271. 
Gerizim,  Mount,  139. 
Gethsemane,  Garden  of,  205. 
Gezer  (Tell  Jezer),  99. 
Ghor  El,  1 8,  272. 
Ghor-es  Seisaban,  273. 
Ghor  es  Safieh,  286. 
Ghurab  Wady,  100. 
Gibeah  (Geba  or  Jeba),  1 66. 
Gibeah,  District  of,  166. 
Gibeah  Phinehas  (Awertah),  154. 
Gibeath  (Jibia),  169. 
Gibeon  (El  Gib),  160,  167. 

«        Pool  of,  1 68. 
Giblites,  10,  68. 
Gihon,  Pools  of,  208,  214. 
Gilboa,  Mount,  126,  129. 


Index 


345 


Gilboa  (Jelbon),  129. 
Gilead,  Land  of,  30. 

"       District  of,  317. 

"       Mountains  of,  318. 

"       Forests  of,  319. 

"       Balsam  (Balm)  of,  319. 
Gilead  Jabesh,  324. 
Gilead  Ramoth,  327. 
Gilgal  (Jiljuheh),  87. 
Gilgal  (Jiljilia),  157. 
Gilgal  (Tell  Jiljulieh)  277-278. 
Gimzo  (Jimzu),  99. 
Gergashites,  28. 
Gischala  (El  Jish),  115. 
Glass,  Discovery  of,  75. 
Golan,  304. 

Golden  Gate  (Jerusalem),  175,  188. 
Golgotha.     See  Calvary. 
Gomorrah,  278,  280. 
Gophna  (Jufna),  162. 
Greek  period,  55. 
Graeco-Roman  Civilization,  56. 

"  "        Architecture,     309, 

3 '  2-3H. 
Guzzeh  Wady,  105. 

Hadad  Rimmon  (Rummaneh),  125. 

Hadeth  El,  108. 

Hagar's  Well  (Beer-lahai-roi),  248. 

Haifa,  77. 

Hajj  Road,  305. 

Halak  Mount,  243. 

Hamam  Wady,  113. 

Hamathites,  31. 

Hamath,  City  of,  9. 

"          Kingdom  of,  9. 

"          Entrance  to,  8. 
Haram  esh  Sherif,  183. 
Hareth  (Kharas),  236. 
Harod,  Spring  of  (Ain  Jalud),  127. 
Harosheth  (El  Harathiyeh),  77. 


Harvest  Periods,  23. 
Hasbany  River,  256. 
Hattin,  Horns  of,  1 12. 
Hauran,  304-305. 
Ilauran  Jebel,  310. 

"        Architecture,  313. 

"        Threshing-floors     of     the 

305- 

Havoth  Jair,  307. 
Hazar-enan,  8,  2QI. 
Hazerim  (Enclosures  of  Avim). 
Hazezon  Tamar.     See  Engedi. 
Hazor  (Hadireh),  114. 
Hazor  (Hazzur),  169. 
Hebron  (Kirjath  Arba),  231. 
"         Vale  of,  231. 
"         Pools  of,  232. 
Helbon,  296. 
Heleph  (Beit  Lif),  115. 
Hermon  Mount  (Jebel  esh  Sheikh), 

296-301. 

Hermon,  Little,  (Jebel  Duhy),  126. 
Hermonites,  Land  of,  297. 
Herod,  Palace  of,  172. 

"        Gate  of  (Jerusalem),  175. 
Herodium.     See     Jebel    Fureidis, 

230. 
Heshbon  (Heshban),  334. 

«         Wady,  317. 
Hezekiah,  Pool  of,  178. 
Hieromax-Yarmuk     or     Jarmuk, 

317. 

Highways  of  Palestine,  44. 
Hinnom,  Valley  of,  170. 
Hippos  (Susiyeh),  272. 
Hippicus,  Tower  of,  172,  177. 
Hittites,  31. 

"        Land  of  the,  32. 
Holy  Sepulchre,  Church  of,  178. 
Horem  (Kh  Harah),  115. 
Hor  Mount  (Jebel  Madurah),  247. 


346 


Index 


Hor  Mount  of  tradition,  17. 
"         "        (Hor-ha-har),  8. 
Hormah  or  Sebaita  (Zephath),  238, 

243- 

Hukkok  (Yakuk),  115. 
Hulda  Gate.     See  Double  Gate. 
Huleh  Lake  (Waters  of  Merom), 

260. 

Huleh  Basin,  256,  261. 
Hyrcanus,    Castle    of  (Karak    el 

Emir),  330. 

Idumea,  41. 

Ijon  (Tell  Dibban),  254. 
Iron  (Yarun),  115. 
Iskanderuneh  River,  81. 
Israel,  Land  of,  2. 

"       Allotment  of  tribes  of,  36. 
Issachar,  Territory  of,  39. 
Iturea  (Jedur),  42,  303. 

Jabbok  River  (Nahr  ez  Zerka),  273, 

318- 

Jabesh  Gilead  (Ed  Deir),  324. 
Jabneel  (Yebneh),  Jamnia,  93. 
Jacob's  Well,  147. 
Jaffa,  Joppa  (Yafa),  83. 

"     Gate  (Jerusalem),  175. 

"      Suburb  (Jerusalem),  216. 
Jalud,  Brook,  127. 
Janoah  (Yanim),  115,  155. 
Japhia  (Yafa),  119. 
Jarmuk-Yarmuk. 
Jattir  (Attir),  236. 
Jaulan,  42,  304. 
Jazer  (Kh  Sar),  330. 

"  Land  of,  330. 
Jebail  (Gebal),  68. 
Jebel  Ajlun,  318. 

"     Atterus,  332. 


Jebel  Dhar  el  Khodib,  15,  106. 
"     Duhy  (Little  Hermon),  126. 
"     esh  Sheikh,  296-301. 
"     es  Shurky,  289-290. 
"     et  Tur  (Olivet),  201. 
"     Fureidis  (Frank  Mountain), 
230. 

Jebel,  Hauran,  310. 
"     Hadireh,  114. 
*'     Jermuk,  in. 
"     Mukhmal,  15. 
«     Neba  (Nebo),  332. 
"     Osha,  320. 
"     Siaghah,  332. 
"     Surinin,  15. 
"     Usdum,  286. 
Jebusites,  34. 

Jedur,  District  of  (Iturea),  303. 
Jehoshaphat,   Valley  of.     See  Ke- 

dron. 

Jehoshaphat,  Tomb  of,  199. 
Jelad,  327. 
Jelbon  (Gilboa),  129. 
Jerash  (Gerasa),  326. 
Jericho  (Tell  es  Sultan),  275. 

"       (New  Testament  Site),  276. 
"       (Modern)  Eriha,  277. 
Jerusalem,  34,  170-223. 

"  Environs  of,  170. 

"          Walls  of,  171,  174. 
"          Gates  of,  175. 
"          Mountains  round  about, 
171. 

Jerusalem,  Modern,  173. 
"          Quarters,  176. 
"          Temple  area,  183. 
"  Royal  Quarries  of,  182. 

"          Catacombs   and  Tombs 
of,  198. 

Jerusalem,  Pools     and     Fountains, 
207. 


Index 


347 


Jerusalem,  Recent  Excavations  in, 

217. 
Jerusalem,  South  Wall  of,  217. 

"          Byzantine     Church     of 
219. 

Jerusalem,   History    and     Associa- 
tions of,  221. 
Jeshimon.     See      Wilderness      of 

Judea. 
Jezreel  (Zerin),  125. 

"       Fountain   of   (Ain  Jalud), 

127. 

Jezreel,  Valley  of,  127. 
Jird  el  Baruk,  108. 
Jisr  Benat  Yacub,  261. 
Jisr  el  Mejamia,  282. 
Jisr  Um-el  Kanater,  282. 
Job,  Well  of  (Bir  Eyub),  214. 
Job's  Country,  317. 
Jogbehah  (Jubeihah),  329. 
Jokneam  (Tell  Keimum),  122. 
Joppa-Jaffa. 
Jordan  River,  18. 

"      Valley,  19,  255. 

"      Sources  of  the,  256. 

"      History  of  the,  284. 

«      Fords  of  the,  282. 

"      Plain  of,  278. 

"      Swellings  of,  282. 

"      Cities  of  the  Plain  of,  278. 
Joseph,  Tomb  of,  152. 
Joshua,  Tomb  of  (Neby  Lusha), 

'55- 

Jotopata.     See  Map  No.  4. 
Judah,  Territory  of,  37. 

"      Mountains  of,  224. 

"      Wilderness  of,  225. 
Judea,  Province  of,  41. 
Juttah  (Yuttah),  236. 


Kadesh    Barnea   (Ain   Gadis),  9, 

244. 

Kadisha  River,  67,  109. 
Kades  of  Galilee.     See  Map  No.  4. 
Kana  Khurbet,  119. 
Kanah  Wady  (Brook  Kanah),  145. 
Kasimiyeh  River  (Litany  R.)  67. 
Kedesh  (Kades)  of  Naphtali,  113. 
Kedron,  Valley  of,  170,  205. 
Kedron  Brook,  207. 
Kefr  Kenna.     See  Cana  of  Galilee. 
Keilah  (Kilah),  236. 
Kelt  Wady,  161,  274. 
Kenath  (Kunawat),  308. 
Kerak-KirofMoab. 
Kerak-Tarichaea,  272. 
Kerioth  (Kureieh),  312,  316. 
Kerioth-Ar  of  Moab. 
Khan  Minyeh  (Capernaum),  267- 

270. 

Khan  of  Chimham,  229. 
Khans,  46. 

Khurbet  Siileilchat,  323. 
King's  Dale  (Shaveh),  206. 

"     Garden,  206,  214. 
Kir  of  Moab  (Kerak),  337. 
Kirjath  (Kuriet  el  Anab),  169. 
Kirjath-huzoth  (Kureiyet),  332. 
Kirjath  Jearim  (Kh  'Erma),  226. 
Kirjath-Sepher-Debir. 
Kishon  River  (Nahr  el  Mukutta), 

76,  78,  122. 
Kulat  el  Bizzeh,  108. 
Kulat  el  Husn-Gamala. 
Kulat  er  Rubad,  323. 
Ku'at  Zerka  (Gadda),  329. 
Kurn  Sartaba,  274. 
Kurn  Wady.     See  Map  No.  4. 
Kuweh  El  (Natural  Bridge),  109. 


Kabul-Cabul. 


Lachish  (Tell  el  Hesy),  93. 


Index 


Ladder  of  Tyre,  65. 
Lebanon,  Mount,  14,  106. 

District  of,  14,  106. 

Valley     of     (Buka'a), 
19,  250. 

Lebanon,  Cedars  of,  51,  108. 
Lebonah  (Lubban),  156. 
Leddan,  Fountain  of,  257. 
Legio  (Lejjun),  Megiddo,  123. 
Lejah  (Argob,  Trachonitis),  306. 
Lisan.     See  El  Lisan. 
Litany     (Leontes),    Kasimiyeh, 

19,  67,  109. 

Lod  (Ludd),  Lydda,  85. 
Luz-Bethel. 
Lydda  (Ludd),  85. 
Lycus  (Dog  River),  44,  66. 

Machaerus,  Fortress  of  (M'Kaur), 
33i. 

Machpelah,  Cave  of,  232-233. 

Madurah  Jebel.     See  M't  Hor. 

Mahanaim  (Mahneh  ?),  323. 

Makkedah,  Cave  of  (El  Mughar), 
93- 

Mamilla,  Pools  of,  214. 

Mamre,  Plain  of,  231. 

Manasseh,  Territory  of,  38. 

Maon  (Main),  234. 

Maps  of  Palestine,  3. 

Mareshah  (Maresh),  104. 

Mariamne,    Tower   of    (Jerusa- 
lem), 172. 

Maritime  Plain,  18,  65. 

Mar  Saba,  230. 

Mary,  Fountain  of,  117. 

Masada,  236. 

Mashetta,  335. 

Masir  el  Fukhhar,  108. 

Medeba  (Madeba),  334. 
"         Mosaic  Map  of,  335. 

I.leduk,  IOS. 


Megiddo  (El  Lejjun),  123. 

"         Valley  of,  120. 
Mejarkon  R.  (Aujeh),  81. 
Melek  Wady,  112. 
Menhirs,  333. 
Merj  Ayun,  254. 
Merom,  Waters  of.     See  Huleh 

Lake. 

Mezar  El,  129. 
Mezarib,  305. 

"         Railroad  to,  305. 
Michmash  (Mukmas),  165. 

Pass  of,  161,  165. 
Migdal  El  (Mujeidel),  115. 
Migdal  Gad  (Mejdel),  93. 
Mishor,  330. 
Mizpah  in  Gilead,  328. 
Mizpeh  (Neby  Samwil),  16,  159. 

"         Plain  of,  159. 
Moab,  330. 

"     Plains  of-Plain  of  Shittim, 

280-281. 

Moabite  Stone,  336. 
Moreh,  Oak  of,  146,  152. 
Moreh,  Hill  of.    See  Jebel  Duhy. 
Mount  Abarim,  330. 

"    of  the  Amalekites,  237. 

"    of  Corruption,  172. 

"    of  Evil  Counsel,  172. 

"    Ephraim,  134. 

"    of  Olives,  172. 

"    of  Precipitation,  118. 

"    Samaria  (Hill  Shomer),  137. 

"    Tabor,  131. 

"    Zion,  173. 

Moor's  Gate  (Jerusalem),   175. 
Mozah  (Beit  Mizza),  169. 
Mufjir  (Dead  River),  81. 
Mugrah  Jebel,  242. 
Muristan,  178. 
Murrch  Wady,  248. 


Index 


349 


Mujedda,  123. 

Mukhna,  Plain  of  (Sahel  Mukhna), 
144- 

Nablus  (Shechem),  145. 

Naboth,  Vineyard  of,  125. 

Nahaliel  (Valley  of  God),  330. 

Nahr  Hasbany,  256. 

Nahr  Rubin,  81. 

Nain,  130. 

Naphtali  Mount,  in,  262. 

"        Territory  of,  40. 
Nar  Wady  en,  226. 
Nativity,  Church  of,  229. 

"        Grotto  of  the,  229. 
Natural  Bridges  of  Lebanon,  109. 
Nazareth,  115. 

Neballat  (Beit  Nebala),  86. 
Nebo   Mount  (Jebel  Neba),   332- 

333- 

Neby  Samwil  (Mizpah),  16,  159. 
Negeb  (South  Country),  237. 
Niha  El,  108. 

Nimrah  (Beth  Nimrah),  281. 
Nimrim  Ford  of  Jordan,  280,  283. 
Nob,  1 68. 

Nun,  Tomb  of  (Neby  Nun),  155. 
Nusairiyeh  Mountains,  9. 
Nuweimeh  Wady,  160. 

Oak  Forests  of  Palestine,  80,  304, 

3!9- 

Olives,  Mount  of,  172,  201,  204. 
Ono  (Kefr  Ana),  86. 
Ophel  Mount,  173. 
Ophni  (Jufna).     See  Gophna. 
Ophrah-Ephron  (Taiyebeh),i62. 
Orontes,  20. 
Osha  Jebel,  320. 

Palestine,  1-57. 


Paneas-Banias. 

Papyrus,  25. 

1'arah  (Farah),  169. 

1'aran,  \Vildci  nrss  of,  237. 

Patriarchal    Highway,  16. 

Pella  (Tabakat-Fahil),  325. 

Peniel-Penuel    (Tellul    Edh  Dha- 

hab),  325. 
Perea,  42. 
Perrizites,  34. 
Phagor  (Faghur),  231. 
Pharpar,  (Awaj),  292. 
Phasaclus,  Tower  of,  172,  17,. 
Philadelphia    (Rabbath    Ammon), 

328. 

Philistines,  28. 
Philistia,  Plain  of,  88. 
Phinehas,  Tomb  of,  154. 
Phoenicia,  Plain  of,  18,  65. 
Phoenicians,  29. 

Pisgah  Mount  (Jebel  Neba),  332, 
Pool  of  Siloam.     See  Siloam. 
Ptolemais-Acre. 

Quarantana  Mount,  161. 
Quarries  Royal.    See  Cotton  Grotto, 
182. 

Rabbath  Ammon  (Amman),  328. 
Railroads,  48. 

Rains.  Early  and  latter,  22. 
Rakkon  (Tell  er  Rakkut),  87. 
Ramah  (Er  Ram),  166. 

"      (Rameh)  of  Naphtali,  115. 

"      Plain  of,  112. 
Ramleh,  86. 
Ramoth  Gilead  (Jerash),  327. 

Mizpah  (Rimthe  ?  ),  322. 
Ras  el  Abiad,  65. 

Ras  en  Nakura  (Ladder  of  Tyre), 
65. 


350 


Index 


Ras  Sherifeh,  16. 
Refuge,  Cities  of,  40-41,  46. 
Rehoboth  (Ruheibeh),  242. 
Reimun  or  Remun,  327. 
Renan,  Testimony  of,  60. 
Reuben,  Territory  of,  40. 
Rephaim,  Plain  of,  207. 
Ribl'ah  (Ribleh),  9,  253. 
Rimmon  of  Zebulun  (Rummaneh), 

112. 

Rimmon  Rock,  165. 

Roadways,  44,  56,  87. 

Robinson's  Arch,  191. 

Roman  Roads,  56. 

Saideh  Wady,  332. 

Safed,  114. 

Salcah  (Sulkhad),  311. 

Salem- Jerusalem. 

Salim  (Shalem),  152. 

Salt,  City  of  (Tell  el  Milh).     See 

Map  No.  8. 
Salt  Es,  327. 
Samaria  (Sebaste),  137,  154. 

"       Hill  of,  137. 

"       Pool  of,  139. 

"       District  of,  41. 
Sarepta  (Zarephath),  72. 
Sarid  (Tell  Shodud),  126. 
Sechu  (Kh  Suweikeh),  169. 
Scopus  Mount,  159. 
Seir  Mount  in  Edom,  243. 
Seir,  Region  of,  243. 
Selhab  Wady,  145. 
Semakh,  272. 
Semakh  Wady,  271. 
Senir-Hermon. 
Sepphoris  (Suffurieh),  116. 
Shaib  Wady,  283. 
Shair  Wady,  145. 
Sharon-Saron,  Plain  of,  80. 
"       Roadways  of,  87. 


Sharon,  Rose  of,  82. 
Sheba  (Tell  es  Seba),  241. 
Shechem  (Nablus),  145. 

"         Plain  of,  144-146. 

"         Vale  of,  144. 
Shephelah,  18,  88,  97. 

"  Valleys  of  the,  97. 

Shepherd's  Fields,  228. 
Sheriah  Wady,  105. 
Shiloah,  Waters  of,  213. 
Shiloh  (Seilun),  155. 
Shittim,    Plain   of  (Abel  Shittim), 

273- 

Shunem  (Sulem),  126. 
Shur  (Wall),  Way  of.     See   Map 

No.  9. 

Sibmah  (Sumieh),  334. 
Sinai  Mount,  16. 
Siddeh  Wady,  338. 
Siddim,  Vale  of,  279. 
Sidon  (Zidon),  69. 

"      Recent  discoveries   near  Si- 
don, 70. 
Siloam  (Silwan),  208. 

"         Pool  of,  210. 

"         Tunnel,  209. 

"         Church  over  Pool,  212. 

"         Stairway,  210. 

"         Old  Pool  of,  213. 
Simeon,  Territory  of,  37. 
Simsin  Wady,  103. 
Sisera,  Battlefield  of,  77. 
Sitnah  (Shutnah),  96,  242. 
Socoh  (Shuweikeh),  236. 
Soris  (Saris),  231. 
Sodom,  278. 
Solomon,  Dominion  of,  6. 

"        Temple  of,  184,  194. 
"        Porch  of,  195. 
"        Stables  of,  190. 
"        Pools  of,  215. 


Index 


351 


Springs  Hot,  267. 

St.  James,  Tomb  of,  199. 

St.  Stephen's  Gate  (Jerusalem),  175. 

Sorek  Valley  (Wady),  100. 

Succoth  (Tell  Dar'ala),  274,  325. 

Sudad.     See  Zedad. 

Suf,  327. 

Sultan's  Pool,  214. 

Suweinet,  161. 

Sycar  (Askar),  152. 

Sychem-Shechem. 

Syria,  I. 

"      Kingdom  of,  54. 

Taanach  (Tannuk),  124. 
Taanath  Shiloh  (Ta'ana),  155. 
Tabernacle,  Platforms  of,  160. 
Tabiga  Et,  270. 
Taiyibeh,  322. 
Tappuah  Beth,  236. 
Tarablus-Tripolis. 
Tarichaea-Kerak,  272. 
Teim  Wady  et,  254. 
Tekoa  (Tekua),  231. 
Tell  Amarna  tablets,  53. 

«     Arka,  68. 

"     Ashtarah  (Ashtaroth),  304. 

"     Azur  (Baal  Hazor),  16. 

"     Dibbin,  254. 

"     el  Ful,  166-167. 

"     el  Hesy,  93. 

"     el  Kady,  257. 

"     el  Kasis,  120,  122,  136. 

"     el  Mutasellim,  124. 

"     es  Safi,  90,  102,  105. 

«     Hum,  267-268. 
Terebinth  in  Valley  of  Elah,  101. 
Terraces  of  Palestine,  47. 
Testimony   of   the    Land    to    the 

Book,  59. 
Thebez  (Tubas),  154. 


Thotmes  III.,  Conquests  of,  52. 
Tiberias,  Sea  of,  262-273. 
"       City  of,  266. 
"        Hot  springs  of,  267. 
Tibneh,  323. 
Tih,  Desert  of,  237. 
Timnath  (Tibnah),  101. 
Timnath      Heres-Timnath    Scran 

(Kefr  Haris),  155. 
Tiphsah  (Tafsah),  155. 
Tirzah  (Teiasir),  153. 
Tob,  Land  of,  322. 
Tomb  of  Absalom,  199. 

"      of  David,  199. 

"      of  Jehoshaphat,  199. 

"      Rachel,  228. 

"      St.  James,  198. 

"      Zachariah,  199. 
Tombs  of  the  Kings,  198. 
"       «    «    Judges,  198. 
Tophet-Gehenna. 
Trachonitis  (Lejah),  42,  306. 
Trans- Jordanic  Country,  56,  302. 
Triple  Gate  (Jerusalem),  190. 
Tripoli  (Tarablus),  67. 
Tribal  Divisions,  36. 
Turan,  Plain  of,  112. 
Tulluza,  153. 
Tyre,  72. 

"     Ladder  of,  65. 
Tyropceon  Valley,  172. 

Urn  el  Jemal  (Beth  Gamul),  328. 
Um-Keis  (Gadara),  321. 
Urtas,  Valley  of,  215. 
Unicorn  of  Syria,  26. 

Valley  gate,  220. 

Virgin,   Fountain  of,  (En  Rogel), 

207. 
Volcanic  Formations,  21. 


352 


Index 


Wailing  Place  of  the  Je'^s,  183. 

Wady  Abu  Nar,  145. 

«  Afranj,  103. 

"  Amriyeh,  280. 

"  Arab,  145. 

"  Bittir,  231. 

"  Bireh,  126. 

"  Deir  Balut,  145. 

«  El  Arish,  9,  249. 

"  el  Ahsy  (Zered),  338. 

«  el  Aujeh,  145. 

"  el  Ghar,  226. 

«  el  Hesy,  104. 

"  el  Hod,  162. 

«  en  Nar,  226. 

««  et  Teim,  254. 

"  esh  Shair,  137,  145. 

«  esh  Sheriah,  105. 

"  Farah,  144. 

|«  Ghurab,  100. 

"  Hamam,  113. 

"  Ishar,  145. 

"  Kanah,  145. 

«  Kelt,  161. 

"  Khureitun,  230. 

"  Melek,  112. 

"  Najil,  100. 

"  Nimr,  145. 

"  Nuweimeh,  160. 

"  Selhab,  145. 

«  Surar,  100. 

"  Urtas,  231. 

«  Zeidah,  317. 
Wilderness  of  Judea,  225. 
Wilson's  Arch,  193. 


Yarmuk   River   (Jarmuk),   Hiero- 

max,  273,  317. 
Yazer-Jazer. 
Yabis  Wady,  324. 

Zachariah,  Tomb  of,  199. 

Zahleh,  no. 

Zakariya  (Azekah),  103. 

"        Tell,  103. 
Zarephath  (Sarepta),  72. 
Zaretan,  274. 

Zebedany,  Plain  of,  289,  290. 
Zeboim,  278. 

Zebulun  (Neby  Sebalan),  115. 
Zebulun,  Territory  of,  39. 

"        Plain  of.     See  Buttauf. 
Zedad  (Sudad),  9,  253,  290. 
Zemarites,  67. 

Zephath  (Hormah),  238,  242. 
Zephathah,  Valley  of,  103. 
Zered  (Zarad),  Brook,  338; 
Zerin-Jezreel. 
Zerka  Nahr  ez,  318. 
Zidon-Sidon. 
Zidonians,  31. 
Zion  Gate  (Jerusalem),  175. 
Zion-Sion,  172. 
Ziph  (Tell  Zif),  234. 
Ziph,  Wood  of,  234. 
Ziphron  (Zifrun),  291. 
Ziz,  Cliff  of,  235. 

Zoar  (Tell  Ektanu),  278-279,  281. 
Zoheleth,  Stone  of  (Zahweileh),  208. 
Zor,  282. 
Zorah  (Surah),  100. 


YC  i  U46U I 


